Utopiab by Sir thomas more

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Utopia by Sir Thomas MoreWhat Is The Difference Between Utopia Book 1 And Book ? What Does Utopia Book 1 and Book reflects? "1515, the Utopian literature began with the first edition of the book entitled Utopia by Sir Thomas More" (504). There are two versions of the Utopia, and the context is somewhat different. Comparing book 1 and book of Utopia, differences do exist.In book 1, inequality is the issue, and it is everywhere in the society. Inequality is a jealousy, demand for equality, and doctrine to justify why some people have more than other. Society where the inequality exists as the main issue, social mobility is likely to happen. It refers to "the movement of individual or groups from one position of a society to another" (571). In addition, unequal distribution of wealth and power are the reasons behind the poor people in the rural area move to urban area with the hope to get a well-pay job so that their life quality would be better. If well pay jobs were readily available in rural area, beggars on the street would not be the case. "Beggars in the street, convicted petty thieves hanging from the gibbets, hungry farmers displace from lands fenced off for more profitable sheep rearing" (505). However, by move into urban area, this does not guarantee he/she would get a job. In turns, they turned into beggars and/or petty thievery because there were no jobs and/or their skills are not in demand. To reflect the social condition of a community/country/city, number of beggars on street is the best tool. As a result, there would be more criminal cases. In other words, crime statistic reflects the social condition of the society. If not because of the inequality, then what would it be?

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Moreover, while theft occurs in all countries/communities/societies, a weak legal system allows for a much higher level of criminal action in some country than in others. Countries where law is not exist and enforce, the probability of people commit a crime is very high. Even in a country/community where law is enforces, crime is still happened. Until the basic necessities such as food, water, shelter, medicines and clothes are not satisfied, crime would remain the issue. Here is a turning point where innocent people turned into the petty thieves. In order to stay survive, they have do so, because there is not much choice for them but to commit a crime. Without do so, he/she and their family would starve to death, and they could not send their children to school. In short, these social conditions force many into thievery. In reality, this is one of the serious issues that need to be taken care. These children are the future of our world, and in order to make the world a better place to live. Without the community support, the future of the society/community is at risk. Because if the future generations are brought up in a bad environment and/or without given education, they are likely to be a problem of the society. Not only because of lives and assets of innocent people are at risk, but also more people would commit a crime. However, there are questions that left to be answers. Who will be responsible for the lives of these innocent children when their father/mother end up in jail? What needs to be done to reduce the crime rates and beggars on the street? As for book , equality of the people in society is the biggest issue. Communistic Democracy is the best words to describe Utopia because it represents two faces of the same coin. In other words, Utopia stresses the needs of society as a whole is generally viewed as being more important than individual freedoms. In such circumstances, an individual right to do something may be restricted on the grounds that it runs counter to the good of society. "Utopia strong influence of Plato's Republic, with its radically communistic re imagining of a society…" (504). Plato argued that individual rights should be sacrificed for the good of the majority and that property should be owned in common. In this type of society, everybody's are equal in both status and wealth. The goods that a country produces, and the quantity in which they are produced are all planned by the government. However, society where the money is not used and goods are distributed equally, theft is not a problem, nor is jealousy. This means the crime rates and beggars on the street are lesser than the society of book1. While the objective of a Utopia society is to mobilize economic resources for the public good, the opposite seems to have occurred. This type of society has little incentive to be efficient, because they cannot go out of business. In other words, Instead of growing where people standard of living improve and becoming more prosperous, such society tend to be characterized by stagnation. This means that people have little freedom to choose what they want to do, but to certain extent society allows people to do anything that would benefit the society as a whole. Although this is good for society as a whole because inequality is not an issue, the abolition of private ownership means there is no incentives for individual to look for better ways to serve consumer needs; hence dynamism and innovation are absent from the society. "The abolition of money and private property has prevented any neurotic attachment to goods and status, and the parasitic classes, rapacious soldiers have been eliminated" (504). Furthermore, book also includes rules and regulations that the community used to direct people and/or as a form of punishment. Some norm are also important to a society they are formalized into laws controlling people's behavior, "describes in detail the laws and customs of a country that bears a striking geographical resemblance to England" (504). Expectation carries with it penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norms. If we fail to live up to the norm, we may face punishment through sanctions such as jail sentences or fines. The sanction used to encourage conformity and to discourage violation of social norms where it usually carried out by authorize agents, such as police officers and military officer. This is part of the social control process because it can serve as a last resort when socialization does not bring about desired behavior. The challenge to effective social control is that people often receive competing message about how to behave, while the state or government/communities may clearly define acceptable behavior. In conclusion, Book 1 mainly emphasizes on inequality of the people that exist in the society, and in which, it influences social mobility. Also, because of the inequality and social condition, that's why people committed a crime, and the social itself punishes the victims for being thieves. In short, inequality leads to problem such as lobbying and murder where innocent people are affected. Whereas the main issue in book is about the equality of the people. Here it reflects the society everybody is equal and where people are united. This mean whether rich or poor, male or female, if the expected behavior is not being met, punishment is likely to happen.

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Costa rican labor laws

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Hiring of EmployeesFrom the perspective of the employer, and especially of a foreign investor looking to establish a facility in Costa Rica, the hiring of employees is a basic matter that should be considered in advance.Conditions and RestrictionsAll employment relationships are regulated by the Labor Code, as amended. Its regulations are the basis for all relationships between the worker and the employer and, except in some special cases, this relationship is guided by the principle that the rights of the workers may not be waived in any form.

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An employee is defined as any person who performs services pursuant to an express or implied work contract, either written or oral, individual or collective, in return for a wage. An employer is defined as any entity, either private or public, that employs the services of others and pays wages pursuant to an express or implied work contract, either oral or written, individual or collective.As these definitions indicate, the labor relationship between an employer and an employee is contractual in nature, but, unlike a civil or commercial contract, an employment contracts terms and conditions are restricted by the basic principles established by the Labor Code. An employment contract under Costa Rican law binds the worker only insofar as it does not violate any of the principles of the Labor Code.The employment contract obligates the employer to abide by its specific terms, not just those contemplated by the Labor Code. If an employment contract grants an employee rights, or benefits, beyond those mandated by the Labor Code, those extra rights or benefits will be enforceable against the employer. Consequently, special care should be taken in executing labor contracts with terms and conditions beyond those required by the Labor Code (e.g., labor contracts with executives and high-ranking employees), since these obligations will be enforceable against the employer, but not necessarily against the employee.There are three essential conditions that must be met to establish an employment relationship (a) one person must obligate himself to perform duties or services for another, (b) under direct supervision of another, (c) for the payment of a salary or some type of compensation. If any one of these conditions is not met, there is no employer-employee relationship, and the relationship is not regulated by the Labor Code.Individual Labor ContractThe employment contract may be written or oral. The Labor Code specifically requires the employer to sign a written contract with the employee, but if this is not done, the law will presume the existence of an oral contract to protect the rights of the worker.The Labor Code assumes that an employment relationship is governed by the conduct between the worker and the employer. Therefore, the terms and conditions of a labor contract will always be based upon the situation that actually exists between the parties, and not necessarily what is written in the contract. From a litigation perspective, if a party can demonstrate that the actual conditions of the employment relationship were different from those established in the written contract, the actual conditions will prevail, and a judge would be required to base his decision on the actual conditions rather than those stated in the contract. For this reason, employers should take care to avoid changing labor conditions from those established in a written contract.Recently, because of Costa Ricas presence in international markets, it has become common to include in high-ranking employees contracts confidentiality, nondisclosure, and noncompetition provisions. Because these specific provisions are not necessarily consistent with the principles of the Labor Code, their enforceability is questionable. Nevertheless, they have become an increasingly popular means of discouraging disclosure of sensitive information and competition from former employees.Special Legislation for Minors and Pregnant WomenThe Labor Code specifically prohibits women and minors (children under the age of eighteen) from working in jobs that are physically or mentally unhealthy or dangerous. It also prohibits minors from working at night or in clubs, bars, or any other establishment that sells liquor.In situations in which the employment of minors is not barred by the Labor Code, a minor may be allowed to work upon obtaining a special permit from the Patronato Nacional de la Infancia, an institution created to protect and defend the rights of minors. If the minor is between fifteen and eighteen years old, however, he may not work more than seven hours a day or forty-two hours a week. If the minor is between twelve and fifteen years old, he may work only five hours a day or thirty hours a week, and the work may not interfere in any way with school.It is unusual to find minors working in industrial factories, because the specialized work required in these factories typically is not suitable for them. In the case of agricultural operations, however, children are often utilized, most often at harvest time in the coffee industry.The work of pregnant women is also heavily regulated by special provisions of the Labor Code. These special provisions can be divided into two areas (i) benefits given to pregnant women, and (ii) compensation provided to pregnant women if they are terminated because of their condition.Pregnancy and Maternity LeaveThe law provides pregnant women with a paid maternity leave that starts one month before the expected delivery date and ends three months following the birth. It also gives pregnant women the right to breast feed their children at work for fifteen minutes every three hours or, if they prefer, half an hour two times a day.The Labor Code generally prohibits an employer from firing a woman who is pregnant. If an employer wants to discharge a pregnant woman for cause, however, there is a special, formal procedure through the Ministry of Labor to obtain authorization for the dismissal. This procedure usually takes longer than the pregnancy, and until the procedure is completed the employer must still pay the woman her salary. There is, therefore, little financial incentive to discharge a pregnant worker pursuant to this procedure. If an employer discharges a pregnant worker without following the procedure, the worker unlawfully discharged will have the right to file a claim for damages. Damages, as set out in the law, equal the salary of the worker for the time remaining in her pregnancy, plus four additional months pay and interest up to the date of payment.This special protection was enacted to prevent employers from firing pregnant women to avoid the payment of the four-month leave and the other special concessions required by law. With the increasing participation of women in the Costa Rican work force during the last three decades, it is not an uncommon practice for an employer and a pregnant employee to agree on certain terms to accommodate the needs of both the new mother and the company. These agreements are generally limited to executives and are not regulated by law.Wages and Other CompensationIndexing the Minimum WageTo maintain control of inflation and the devaluation of local currency, the Costa Rican government has established what are known as mini devaluations, which are very small decreases (approximately one-tenth of a Colon per day) in the value of the currency with respect to the U.S. dollar. These mini devaluations are done on a daily basis by the Central Bank of Costa Rica. This procedure, as well as internal inflation, which ranges from ten to fifteen percent annually, diminishes the buying power of salaries every day, resulting in an overall reduction in the workers income.The government publishes semi-annually a presidential decree establishing the minimum wages for various sectors of the economy, designed to offset inflation. The presidential decree states a minimum wage for labor categories on an hourly, daily, and monthly basis.BonificationsAn employer may grant the employee additional benefits based on the net profits of the company or any other measure of performance. These benefits are called bonifications and are not considered to be salary, but rather are an incentive for the employees to increase their efficiency.To maintain the bonifications as nonsalary payments, the employer must pay them on a temporary basis, subject to the will of the employer. If the benefits are paid on a periodic basis, subject to objective conditions that, if met, automatically entitle the employee to the benefit, these payments will be considered to be part of the salary of the worker for the purposes of social security, income tax, and severance benefits.Most benefits normally given to employees can be structured in a manner that will qualify them as a bonification. It is necessary, however, for employers to do this well in advance of payment so that the benefits might qualify.School SalaryIn 15, a special law was enacted to try to ensure that at the beginning of the school year parents would have sufficient money available to pay for school materials. This extra amount is known as school salary. School salary compensates parents for the extra expenses associated with the beginning of school--expenses that have a particular impact on those workers earning minimum wage. The calculation procedure for the school salary is established by law and is regulated by the Ministry of Labor. The law states that any employee who earns minimum wage will receive an additional two percent raise in his salary each year, and the total amount will be paid to the employee at the beginning of February.Vacation and HolidaysModifications to the Labor Contract (Ius Variandi)One of the fundamental principles of Costa Rican labor law, known as Ius Variandi, states that an employer may not, under any circumstances, change the basic conditions of the employment contract to the detriment of an employee without the express consent of that employee.The law defines basic conditions as salary, shifts, place of work, and form of salary payment. If the employer changes any of these basic conditions without the express consent of the employee, the employee has the right to terminate the contract with full payment of severance benefits.Other provisions of the contract that are not considered to be basic conditions may be modified by the employer without the consent of the employee, provided those changes will not directly or indirectly modify the basic conditions of the agreement. Usually, the modification powers of an employer will vary from one economic activity to another, since the essential conditions of a contract are closely related to the type of job the employee is performing.Yearly VacationsRest for the employee is a well-protected right under the Costa Rican Labor Code. Social, health and efficiency considerations all support the rationale behind the right of the employee to obtain appropriate rest after a certain number of working days.Employees have the right to two weeks of paid vacation for every fifty-two weeks of continuous work for the same employer. An employee may not take vacations in segments smaller than a week. Also, an employee may not accumulate vacation time over a period of more than two years. The salary of an employee during a week of vacation is the average weekly salary (ordinary and overtime) that the employee has received during the previous fifty-two weeks.The Labor Code allows a day of rest after six consecutive days of work, normally on Sunday, although this day of rest is not considered to be vacation. Most blue collar workers also do not work on Saturdays, this being an additional rest day. In rural areas and agricultural facilities, however, workers typically perform their normal duties on Saturday and have only Sunday as a rest day.Social SecurityEmployers are considered to be registration and retention agents for the social security system, and are required to register their workers with the Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social (Social Security Agency)1 immediately after the workers are hired. Failure to do so will result in the employer having to pay any and all medical bills that the employee incurs during the time the employee was not registered, together with interest and fines attributable to unpaid social security contributions from the date of the employees hiring.Employers must pay an amount equal to twenty-two percent of the salary of each employee to the Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social and must withhold from employees wages nine percent of the salary, which is forwarded to the Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social on a monthly basis. Failure of the employer to pay money due results in interest payments and penalties, but failure to turn over the money retained constitutes a criminal offense punishable by a jail sentence.Termination of Labor ContractsTermination without Just CauseAn employer has the right to fire any worker at any time for whatever reason, but in the absence of statutorily defined just cause for termination, the employer must give the employee being discharged advance notice of termination and severance pay.The amount of advance notice that an employer must give before terminating an employee depends on the employees length of service. During the first three months of employment, the employee is entitled to no advance notice. Thereafter, the amount of notice that is required is determined as follows - after continuous work for more than three months but less than six months, a minimum of one weeks notice;- after continuous work for more than six months but less than a year, a minimum of fifteen days notice; - after continuous work for more than one year, a minimum of one months notice.The employer must give the discharged employee severance pay in accordance with the following schedule - after continuous work for more than three months but less than six months, the employer must pay the equivalent of ten days of salary; - after continuous work for more than six months but less than a year, the employer must pay the equivalent of twenty days of salary; - after continuous work for more than one year, the employer must pay the equivalent of one month of salary for every year worked.Severance pay may never be more than the equivalent of eight months salary unless previously agreed upon by the parties.Termination with Just CauseThe Costa Rican Labor Code lists the reasons for which an employer may terminate the contract of an employee with just cause, thereby eliminating the right of the employee to receive advance notice of termination and severance pay. Each of the following situations constitutes just cause for termination; when the employee- during working hours, conducts himself in an immoral manner or defames, insults, or assaults his employer; - during working hours, defames, insults, or assaults his co-workers; - outside of working hours, defames, insults, or assaults his employers or any representative thereof; - commits any crime or act against the property of the employer, or when he intentionally causes material damage to machinery, tools, raw materials, products, or any other object directly related to the work;- reveals technical, commercial, or industrial secrets of the employer; - compromises the security of the workplace and of other employees by his gross negligence; - without just cause, does not report to work for two consecutive work days or three or more days in the same month;- refuses to follow security measures established for the safety of the workplace and the work force, or when the employee refuses to follow the rules established by the employer to achieve better efficiency and performance;- has been reprimanded by the employer once and continues to commit the same offense; - falsifies his qualifications; - is incarcerated; and - does anything else that is considered to be a grievous violation of the employment contract.Bankruptcy of EmployerIn the event of an employers bankruptcy or insolvency, the employees contract is automatically terminated, and the employer must give pay in lieu of notice, severance pay, unpaid vacations, and the thirteenth month salary. To guarantee these payments, all assets of the employer are attached to pay a pro rata share of each employees compensation.Ministry of Labor and Labor CourtsMinistry of Labor ProceduresThe Ministry of Labor has set up a conciliatory program for employees who have been fired without just cause or who have not been paid by their employer. Both parties are summoned to meet with a representative of the Ministry to try to resolve their differences. This procedure is not mandatory, and if no conciliation is achieved, the employee must go to court to obtain any amount owed to him.Labor Court ProceduresThe procedures for labor lawsuits are basically the same as those in any other type of civil litigation. Depending on the region, population, and amount being requested, a lawsuit can last anywhere from six months to five years.ConciliationBefore the trial of a lawsuit begins, another conciliation process, which is mandatory for both parties, is initiated by the judge. If a conciliation agreement is achieved, the judge, through a final resolution, accepts the agreement and ends the trial. If, however, the conciliation process is not successful, the judge will move immediately to hear witnesses in the case and will thereafter render a decision. If the employee is granted pay in lieu of notice and severance pay by the judge, the employee may attach the assets of the employer to receive the awarded pay.Although the Costa Rican Labor Code does not provide for the award of punitive damages to an unjustly fired employee, some recent court decisions have granted this payment, limited to a maximum of six months salary.

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Lourdes

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INTRODUCTION ʏ

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ʏIMPORTANT DATES7th. January 1844 The birth of Bernadette Soubirous in the Boly Mill. She is the daughter of François Soubirous, miller, and his wife Louise Castrot.th. January 1844 Baptism of Bernadette Soubirous.11th. February 1858 to 16th. July 1858 Eighteen Apparitions of the Virgin Mary at the Grotto of Massabielle.4th. July 1866 Bernadette leaves Lourdes for Nevers.th. July 1866 Bernadette receives the Religious Habit of the Congregation of the Sisters of Charity of Nevers. She receives the name Sister Marie-Bernard.0th. October 1867 Her Religious Profession in the Congregation of the Sisters of Charity of Nevers.16th. April 187 (Wednesday of Easter) The death of Bernadette.14th. June 15 Beatification of Bernadette.8th. December 1 Canonisation of Bernadette by Pope Pius XI at St. Peters in Rome. BERNADETTE HERSELFMarie Lagus, foster-mother of Bernadette.As a baby, Bernadette was already very loveable, the neighbours loved to see her and to hold her in their arms. You could not stop loving her enough, she was sweet and loveable. Bernadette, in spite of the tiredness which was caused by her shortness of breath and difficulty in breathing, always appeared happy and cheerful. She never gave us any trouble, she took what she was given, and appeared happy. We loved her very much as well. (1857) Bernarde Castrot, aunt and godmother of Bernadette.Bernadette was always good natured, she was very docile; when scolded, she never retaliated. Abb Pène, Curate, or Assistant Priest, of the Parish of Lourdes in 1858.Bernadette was small for her age, puny, slightly asthmatic, her face was round but regular, beautiful eyes. Her slim size would allow her to pass for a young girl about two or three years younger than she really was. everything about Bernadette radiated naïvety, simplicity, goodness. Jean Barbet, teacher.Bernadette has difficulty to retain the Catechism word by word, because she cannot study, she does not know how to read, but she puts a lot of care into the appropriate meaning of the explanations. Besides, she is very attentive, above all very pious and modest. THE WATER AT LOURDESThe water at Lourdes is spring water, pure, drinkable, identical to all other water in the area, is a sign not a fetish. Bernadette Soubirous, herself said; THE WATER IS TAKEN AS A M E D I C I N E…YOU MUST HAVE FAITH, YOU MUST PRAY THIS WATER HAS NO EFFECT WITHOUT FAITH ! The deeper meaning of the water of Lourdes is written above the taps Wash your face, drink this water and pray God to purify your heart. The spring of the Grotto is directed in channels up a gentle slope towards two underground holding tanks which hold almost one million litres, one close to the taps and the other under the Rosary Basilica. The temperature of the water is kept at 1ºC exactly. From there the water is pumped to a large reservoir of ,000m². It is from this high point that the taps, the baths, the dispatch point for sending the water of Lourdes throughout the world are supplied. The water is shipped free, except for postage charges charge. 8,500m² of water are used annually in the baths and the taps. ʏCURES FROM THE WATER There have been many claims stated by some of the handicapped and ill saying their illness or disability had been cured after bathing in the sacred water. In most cases, there has been a scientific explanation of coincidental cures that have occurred shortly after a visit to Lourdes. Here is a piece explaining what has to be undergone to prove a whether a claimed cure is valid or not.I-Medical Examination.1 - THE CRITERIA FOR A CURE.For the medical study to be able to find in favour of a cure to be certain, definitive and medically inexplicable it must be establishedthat the fact and the diagnosis of the illness is first of all established and correctly diagnosed; that the prognosis must be permanent or terminal in the short term; that the cure is immediate, without convalescence, complete and lasting; that the prescribed treatment could not be attributed to the cause of this cure or be an aid to it. - THE EXAMINATION OF THE MEDICAL BUREAU OF LOURDES.The sick who come to Lourdes with a pilgrimage group are accompanied by a doctor who is furnished with a medical file describing their present condition.This file, normally explicit enough, forms the base to work from when a pilgrim declares that they have been cured. The file and the pilgrim who claims to have been cured are presented to the Medical Bureau, that is, to the doctor who is permanently in Lourdes who will then gather together the members of the medical profession present in Lourdes on that day and who wish to participate in this examination.No definite conclusion will be given at the end of this examination. The person who claims to have been cured will be invited to meet the Medical Commission the following year and/or for many subsequent years.Finally, after many successful examinations the file of the cure will be sent (if ¾ of the doctors present so wish) to the International Medical Committee. - THE EXAMINATION BY THE LOURDES INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL COMMITTEE. (CMIL) This second level of enquiry exists since 147. At first it was the Lourdes National Medical Committee then it became the International Committee in 154.The Committee is made up of thirty specialists, surgeons, professors or Heads of Department‚ from different countries that meet once each year. The current President is Professor Jean-Louis Armand-Laroche.The International Medical Committee of Lourdes (CMIL) has a consultative role.It will allow an assessment to continue over several years in order to observe the development of the patient before they arrive at any opinion.If CMIL gives a favourable opinion the file is then sent to the competent church authorities.Since 147 until recently, 100 files have been opened, each one for the declaration of a cure.The CMIL met about thirty times between 147 and 18. They have presented files to the Church, 1 have been judged to be miraculous. Before the CMIL came into being the Church had recognised 46 miracles.II - Enquiry and decision of a miracle by the Church.When the file is sent to the Bishop of the place where the cured person lives, the case is already recognised as extraordinary by science and medically inexplicable.It remains for the Church, through the intermediary of the Bishop, to make an announcement on the miraculous character of the cure.To do this, the Bishop gathers together a Diocesan Canonical Commission made up of priests, canonists, and theologians. The rules that guide the procedures of this Commission are those defined in 174 by the future Pope Benedict XIV in his treatise Concerning the Beatification and Canonisation of Servants of God (Book IV, Part I, Chapter VIII nø)In summary the rules demand that there must not be found in the cure any valid explanation, medical or scientific, natural or usual. This is the case for the cures that have taken place at Lourdes, as we will see.. Having established this, it remains for the Canonical Commission to determine that this cure comes from God.Furnished with conclusions reached by the Commission, it is the responsibility of the Bishop to make a definitive pronouncement and to suggest to his Diocese and to the world that they see this cure as a sign from God.

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Language, World in Western Literary Criticism

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Western critical theory has got rapid development in the 0th century. Following the full development of Russian Formalism in the early 0th century, other literary theories, such as new criticism, phenomenology, hermeneutics, reception theory, structuralism, deconstruction, come into being. Although all the theories have their specific concerns, they concentrate on a number of questions, such as the locus of literary meaning, the status of the text, the role of the reader, the function of language in the text, the relation between literary and society (history). It is certain that all theories have their strengths and weaknesses, but having a clear understanding of their theories and making a scientific judgment will enable us to have better correct attitudes towards literary works. Here, in this paper, I will tell my understanding of western literary criticism from two aspects, language and history. Formalism Formalism places the study of literature on a scientific footing by defining its object and establishing its own methods and procedures. In other words, they are making efforts to find the internal laws and principles that make a piece of literature literary, or the form of literature. They study the form of the work (as opposed to its content), although form to a formalist can connote anything from genre (for example, one may speak of the sonnet form) to grammatical or rhetorical structure to the emotional imperative that engenders the works (more mechanical) structure. No matter which connotation of form pertains, however, formalists seek to be objective in their analysis, focusing on the work itself and avoiding external considerations. They pay particular attention to literary devices used in the work and to the patterns these devices establish.Formalists have generally suggested that everyday language, which serves simply to communicate information, is stale and unimaginative. They argue that literariness has the capacity to overturn common and expected patterns (of grammar, of story line), thereby rejuvenating language. This doesn¡¯t mean that literature language is difficult language, but literature language lays emphasis on the process of experience. Then what can be done to achieve ¡®literariness¡¯? They put forward the concept of ¡°defamiliarization¡±, to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged.(from Art as Technique by Shklovsky). Eagleton could not accept the concept of estrangement. He says, that a piece of language was estranging doesn¡¯t guarantee that it is always and everywhere so; it is estranging only against a certain normative linguistic background and if this alters then the writing might cease to be perceptible as literature. As to literariness, Eagleton says that it is a function of the differential relations between one sort of discourse and another; it is not an eternally given property, and ¡° it is in fact historically specific.¡± The Formalists quite rightly thought that literary criticism was overburdened with socio-political issues. In the late nineteenth century literature was indeed one of the principal media of discussion for political and philosophical issues. Consequently literary criticism was almost exclusively the guarded territory of journalism. Literary criticism was not considered an academic activity. Before the appearance of the Formalists, academic research, quite ignorant of theoretical problems, made use of antiquated aesthetic, psychological, and historical ¡®axioms¡¯ and had so lost sight of its proper subject that its very existence as a science had become illusory. There was almost no struggle between the Formalists and the Academicians, not because the Formalists had broken in the door (there were no doors), but because we found an open passage-way instead of a fortress. (Boris Eikhenbaum, The Theory of the ¡®Formal Method¡¯, Öì¸Õ£¬¡¶¶þÊ®ÊÀ¼ÍÎ÷·½ÎÄÕÅúÆÀÀíÂÛ¡·). Though the formalists did not deny that art had a relation to social reality they provocatively claimed that this relation was not the critic¡¯s business. So what they care in literary criticism is just form not the content which has certain relation with social reality. The most severe criticism of formalism comes from Marxism. Trotosky remarks that the form of art is, to a certain and very large degree, independent, but the artist who creates this form, and the spectator who is enjoying it, are not empty machines.New Criticism Help with essay on Language, World in Western Literary Criticism

While Formalism was prevailing in Russia, there arose a similar literary movement in Europe and America, the New Criticism. New Criticism shares something with Russian Formalism; it keeps literary form as the only proper target of literary criticism.For most of the New Critics that job is practical criticism or close reading, in which the poem or literary text is treated as a self-sufficient verbal artifact. By careful attention to language, the text is presumed to be a unique and privileged source of meaning and value, sharply distinguished from other texts or other uses of language (particularly scientific language). Accordingly, the meaning of the poem is not conveyed by any prose paraphrase and is valued as the source of an experience (for the reader) available in no other way. For this among other reasons, opponents of the New Critics have frequently charged that they ignore history, ideology, politics, philosophy, or other factors that shape literary experience. While such charges are not entirely fair, they arise because New Criticism in practice came to focus almost exclusively on problems of interpreting individual texts. Above all New Criticism removed literature from the realm of politics. The text was interesting in itself, not in what it said about the world or how it was produced at it own historical moment. New criticism has a belief in the study of literature as independent of historical or authorial origins. The New Critics believed in this idea of the ¡®text in itself¡¯. Richards tries to explain literary reading in terms of modern semantics and psychology. His new criticism is psychological criticism which is not spontaneous response, but psychological response. It is practical criticism. In Practical Criticism, Richards puts forward four functions of language (sense, feeling, tone, and intention). We have symbolic discourse (scientific/poetic language) and evocative discourse. There is mysterious time of the evocator and the evocated in poetry. What is important in literature is how to evocate feelings. Richards has psychological concern about the text language. He is concerned how the readers are affected psychologically. So his criticism belongs to affective criticism. Richards¡¯ criticism not just persists in the text. His second stage concern is how emotion is aroused. It starts from the reader¡¯s view point, but it is more scientific.Ransom doesn¡¯t agree with Richards. He says that the primary task of literature is to deal with the objects. Language has meaning, language has reference to objects. If we have objects, the feelings will spontaneously attach to it, it is personal experience, so it is not necessary to talk about emotion and we just need to talk about the text. So long as the object seems sufficient on our feelings, it is not the critics¡¯ task to talk about emotion.T. S. Eliot is a member of new criticism. He focuses attention on tradition. In his classicism poetry, he emphasizes universal, in contrast with romanticism which emphasizes the individual. He says that no text can have an independent meaning. All texts depend on other texts for its meaning. So literary tradition, such as poems, belong to other texts. Then we have so called archetype. It means that any new text is new realization of the previous traditional texts. For Eliot the great poem is transparent, not of the authors mind but in terms of what the poem is about. ¡®The end of the enjoyment of poetry is a pure contemplation from which all accidents of personal emotion are removed; thus we aim to see the object as it really is. We focus on the object as it really is -- the poetic language at best effaces itself to allow view of what the poem is about. Eliot also believed that society was degenerating from an original organic state. He called this the ¡®dissociation of sensibilities¡¯-- a fatal split between intellect and feeling which he thought occurred sometime in the C17th.Leavis focuses on the language too, but he is different from the new critics. Leavis says that industry brings evils, alienation, and turn everything into commodity. We need something to save the society. Religion has failed for the development of science. Literature would provide us with life experience, so his criticism is criticism of life, to search for life behind language. But new criticism just goes through language, the surface of text. To Leavis, literature is also a reflection of ideology, and literature is panacea, social cement. He proposes not to change society, just to survive it. As to this point, Eagleton says that Leavis places too much emphasis on literature. Literature is not panacea. Leavis has put things upside down. To save society, we have to work from bottom to top.The following is the main differences between Leavis and the New Critics(1) The text and the authorLeavis discussion of work often slides into analysis of author¡¯s mind commonsense view of the author as the origin of meaning.New Critics author based reading is intentional fallacy. Work is self-sufficient.() The text and realityLeavis poetry must be about life, but he does not really explain whose life.New Critics The text is self-contained, but is supposed ultimately to return to reality. This is a philosophical stance--in practice new critics rarely has reference outside the specifically literary qualities of the text.() The text and reader Leavis Reader must be trained to respond sensitively to poetry.New Critics It is affective fallacy. Meaning must be in the text rather than a production of the reader.(4) The text and languageLeavis the text must have organic connection to life and language should be ¡®concrete¡¯.New Critics the text has poetic language, so it cannot be paraphrased.Eagleton adopts a critical attitudes toward all these new critics. ¡°What we value will not be our free choice, but be decided by the society in literature.¡± Eagleton here wants to clear away the subjectivity or any individual choice as literature. As to Eliot¡¯s view that tradition will never make mistakes, Eagleton says tradition is only a mystery. To Eagleton, Ransom¡¯s ontology, text has ontological meaning, is myth.PhenomenologyPhenomenological criticism, an idealist, essentialist, anti-historical, formalist and organicist type of criticism, aims at a wholly ¡®immanent¡¯ reading of the text, totally unaffected by anything outside it. Husserl, the chief representative of phenomenology, bracketed the real object, then the actual historical context of the literary work, its author, conditions of production and readership are ignored. 1. language For phenomenological criticism, the language of a literary work is little more than an ¡®expression¡¯ of its inner meanings. There is little place for language as such in Husserlian phenomenology. Husserl speaks of a purely private or internal sphere of experience; but such a sphere is in fact a fiction, since all experience involves language and language is ineradicably social. For Husserl, meaning is something which pre-dates language language is no more than a secondary activity which gives names to meanings. Husserl focused on things as they show themselves. The philosophy was to let things appear as they are or to refrain from reading our presuppositions into a text. The purpose of Husserls phenomenological reduction is to focus on what is immediate to experience, Everything not immanent to consciousness must be rigorously excluded. In this approach the meaning of the text has been fixed by the language and exists in an idealist sense. Eagleton phenomenology promises to give a firm grounding for human knowledge, but can do so only at a massive cost the sacrifice of human history itself. For surely human meanings are in a deep sense historical they are not a question of intuiting the universal essence of what it is to be an onion, but a matter of changing, practical transactions between social individuals. . World Husserl believes that we firstly think by our own language, then find suitable language for the idea, so he believes languages is in a secondary position. Thus we have pure meaning in Husserl, and this meaning is not influenced by history. According to Eagleton, meaning is actually product of specific historical point, and no meaning can be deprived from perspective.Hermeneutics Husserl and Heidegger share some similarities. They both agree the scientific understanding of the society should be rejected, but Heidegger brings history to the understanding of Hermeneutics. The recognition that meaning is historical was what led Husserl¡¯s most celebrated pupil, the German philosopher Martin Heidegger, to break with his system of thought. Heidegger holds that language in not merely a device for human communication, it brings the world to be in the first place. Only where there is language is there ¡®world¡¯. He adds that language has an existence of its own in which human beings come to participate, and only by participating in it do they come to be human at all. Heidegger¡¯s hermeneutics is generally referred to as ¡®hermeneutical phenomenology¡¯ to distinguish it from Husserl¡¯s ¡®transcendental phenomenology¡¯ because it bases its theory on questions of historical interpretation rather than on transcendental consciousness. Structuralism Structuralism is appealing to some critics because it adds a certain objectivity, a SCIENTIFIC objectivity, to the realm of literary studies (which have often been criticized as purely subjective/impressionistic) This scientific objectivity is achieved by subordinating parole to langue; actual usage is abandoned in favor of studying the structure of a system in the abstract. Thus structuralist readings ignore the specificity of actual texts. In structuralism, the individuality of the text disappears in favor of looking at patterns, systems, and structures. Some structuralists (and a related school of critics, called the Russian Formalists) propose that ALL narratives can be charted as variations on certain basic universal narrative patterns. In this way of looking at narratives, the author is canceled out, since the text is a function of a system, not of an individual. Structuralism argues that any piece of writing, or any signifying system, has no origin, and that authors merely inhabit pre-existing structures (langue) that enable them to make any particular sentence (or story)--any parole. Hence there is the idea that language speaks us, rather than that we speak language. We dont originate language; we inhabit a structure that enables us to speak; what we perceive as our originality is simply our recombination of some of the elements in the pre-existing system. Hence every text, and every sentence we speak or write, is made up of the already written. By focusing on the system itself, in a synchronic analysis, structuralists cancel out history. Most insist, as Levi-Strauss does, that structures are universal, therefore timeless. Structuralists cant account for change or development; they are uninterested, for example, in how literary forms may have changed over time. They are not interested in a texts production or reception/consumption, but only in the structures that shape it. In erasing the author, the individual text, the reader, and history, structuralism represented a major challenge to what we now call the liberal humanist tradition in literary criticism. Eagleton attacks structuralism for structuralism holds that social reality or history may be a condition of change of literary form, but it¡¯s not the cause of the change of literary form.Post-Structuralism while structuralism seeks to establish a science or poetics of literature, post-structuralist thought, has taken an anti-scientific stance and, pursuing the infinite play of signifiers, has resisted the imposition of any organising system. The leading figure in deconstruction, Jacques Derrida, looks at philosophy (Western metaphysics) to see that any system necessarily posits a CENTER, a point from which everything comes, and to which everything refers or returns. In his paper ¡°Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Science,¡± Derrida says that any structure has a fixed origin as the center of ¡°structurality.¡± This center allows for and limits the freeplay of the structural elements, since it both organizes and balances the structure. However, to preside over the structure, this organizer is not part of the organization so that freeplay will not affect the center. The center, in this sense both within and outside the structure, is both the center and not the center. To post-structuralists, meaning is not immediately present in a sign. Meaning is scattered along the whole chain of signifiers, and it is a kind of constant flickering of presence and absence together. There is no fixed meaning in the text. When we read a text, a sentence doesn¡¯t have its own meaning. The sentence¡¯s meaning is changing. Language in post-structuralism is much less stable. Eagleton has his comment on post-structuralism. He says that Derrida¡¯s work has been unhistorical, politically evasive and in practice oblivious to language as ¡®discourse¡¯.

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We Were Soldiers

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We Were Soldiers We Were Soldiers is based on a true story about the first major battle in Vietnam. The movie has an extensive cast including Mel Gibson, Madeleine Stowe, Greg Kinnear, Chris Klein, and Sam Elliot. Director and writer Randall Wallace, known for Braveheart, puts together a fairly accurate portrayal of the battle. The motion picture illustrates the battle of Ia Drang, located in Northern Vietnam. That battle is said to be one of the most gory and fierce battles of the war. The United States was facing a new enemy and did not know quite how to fight it. Hidden by massive jungles and ravines, the Vietcong, known as VC, had a different way of fighting than the US had experienced. To accommodate this, the U.S. used Huey Helicopters to transport men and supplies to the front-line. Colonel Hal Moore (Mel Gibson) leads the first Battalion, 7th Cavalry (along with 400 men) into what is said to be the "Valley of Death." Unaware of what he is up against, Col. Moore and his men exit the helicopters and begin to patrol the area. Minutes later, they find out base-headquarters of the North Vietcong is directly in front of them. The North Vietcong was estimated to be 4000 men strong; this compared to Moore's 400 men. Almost immediately, intense shooting and bomb-bardment broke. For many of Moore's men, that was the first combat situation they had experienced. US soldiers are pushed to the brink of annihilation in order to hold their ground and keep the VC from overrunning them. The intense fighting goes on for days. In the end, over 1,800 Vietcong soldiers were dead and 155 US soldiers had given their life for their country (We Were Soldiers). The Film, "We Were Soldiers," is a historical account of the first major battle of Vietnam; This paper will explore both the accurate angle, as well as the fabricated dialogue using factual documentation. "We Were Soldiers" is a film directed towards the American people. The film shows everyone working together. Wallace wants the audience to believe that great teamwork and equality existed. Moore says, "We are a battalion of many nationalities, ethnic groups, religions, black, white, Asian, but on that battle field none of that will matter. You will watch eachothers back as they will watch yours" (We Were Soldiers). "In this film there are no cowards, no racists. Everyone pulls together; nobody runs in fear; and everybody holds their ground. U.S. soldiers die saying things like, Tell my wife I love them, and I'm glad I got the chance to die for my country"(Paul D'Amato). These words cause an inaccurate portrayal of what actually occurred between soldiers of different colors and nationalities. Not every soldier was a brave American hero as the movie sets out to do. According to Soldiers in Revolt, a historical book that recaps the war, there were many cowards and soldiers that did not follow orders. Here, every soldier is mindful, obeys, and never pulls back. This is what makes the American audience feel reassured about the soldiers we have fighting for us. Furthermore, Buy cheap We Were Soldiers term paper

the Vietnam War takes place in the mid 160's, a time when whites and blacks had a separate but equal policy. However, this film shows men of all colors acting as if skin color was not an issue. Wallace does this to show the audience how America pulls together during a time of war. Soldiers in Revolt states, "soldiers formed their own cliques, mainly consisting of soldiers with the same skin color" (66). This statement contradicts what Wallace was trying to depict about how the soldiers got along. Second, "If Ia Drang was put into its proper historical context, it would be portrayed as a battle in which poorly armed, but more motivated Vietnamese soldiers, fighting for their homeland, confronted forces with far greater military capabilities and showed for the first time the US had a fight on their hands"(Paul D'Amato). The US went into this war underestimating their enemy, thus costing many American soldiers their lives. The Vietcong were inferior in comparison with the American air power as well as artillery (Galloway). However, they were masters in guerrilla warfare, a method the US was not accustomed to. The film shows how brave and well the Americans fought outnumbered 10 to 1. Yet without the air support and artillery, the Americans would have for surely been overrun by the massive number of men they were facing. Generals in the Pentagon thought Moore would not have any problem defeating the enemy with the amount of air support and weapons possessed by the American military. The Americans did not know how many men they were facing; did not know the terrain; and did not know the Vietcongs capabilities. This lack of knowledge ends up being very costly to American lives. The Americans were waging a war halfway across the world, whereas the Vietcong were fighting on their home turf. This gave the VC more motivation to keep fighting. This film portrays "Ia Drang campaign as a US victory. This is completely shortsighted"(Paul D'Amoto). By winning this major battle, it causes the audience to assume that America wins the war. That is far from the truth. America is a country far greater in population as well as size. We are far more advanced than Vietnam and have far more money than Vietnam. "America possesses some of the most brilliant Generals in the world" (Nam 6). According to Nam, a historical recap of Vietnam, "America's fighting men won every major battle, including such crucial conflicts as Ap Bia…in the Au Shau Valley, Khe Sanh and Tet 167, yet we lost the war."(66)Lastly, the film has many small things that are not historically correct. The movie claims there were 400 men. According to Nam and an account with Moore himself, there were more like 450 soldiers that fought in the "Valley of Death". Wallace did this to make the American odds even higher than they already are. Nam claims that 16 huey helicopters airlifted the men but the movie shows only 11. It also seemed that when a soldier died, the next day the widow would receive a telegram. There is no way a wife could receive confirmation of her husbands death that quickly. This film has many factual things incorporated into it. Overall, the film remains pretty consistent with testimonies from other soldiers including, Col. Hal Moore who, along with Joe Galloway, a reporter that worked with Moore, wrote the book, "We Were Soldiers once young". We Were Soldiers portrayed Moore fairly well. Moore knew he was facing something he had never faced before. Going into the thick jungles of Vietnam would be a new experience for him and the US Army. The Pentagon used Moore as their "Guinea Pig" to test the enemys strengths and weaknesses. Moore was a highly educated man, as the film showed, graduating from WestPoint and attending Harvard. He was experienced in warfare and was big on discipline and training, which the film depicted as well. Moore believed he should be the first on and the last one off the battlefield. Wallace made sure this was well known. In conclusion, although many main points are altered to satisfy the American people, Wallace does a good job of bringing a lot of history and truth into this Hollywood motion picture. Thus showing the American people some of the things that occurred overseas while protecting our freedom.

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Comparison of australia and new zealand

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A Comparison of Australia and New Zealand This report will include

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Background information on both countries. Australia and New Zealand's links/comparisons in the following areas # 1 Tourism # Political Relations # Defence # 4 Sport Information on both countries Area Population Gross Domestic Porduct GDP GDP per capita And Other Misc. InformationBackground information on both countriesAustralia's BackgroundAustralia became a commonwealth of the British Empire in 101. It was able to take advantage of its natural resources to rapidly develop its agricultural and manufacturing industries and to make a major contribution to the British effort in World Wars I and II. Long-term concerns include pollution, particularly depletion of the ozone layer, and management and conservation of coastal areas, especially the Great Barrier Reef. A referendum to change Australias status, from a commonwealth headed by the British monarch to an independent republic, was defeated in 1.New Zealand's BackgroundThe British colony of New Zealand became an independent dominion in 107 and supported the UK militarily in both World Wars. New Zealand withdrew from a number of defense alliances during the 170s and 180s. In recent years the government has sought to address longstanding native Maori grievances. Link/Comparison Number 1TourismPeople-to-people links across the Tasman are very close as hundreds of thousands of Australians and New Zealanders cross the Tasman each year as tourists, for business purposes, or to visit family members. One of the reasons many Australian visit New Zealand is because of thier great mountain ranges, which are great for many snow sports. Other reasons for Australians to visit New Zealand are the great natural heritage, all he different types of entertainment such as; wine tasting, hiking, camping, bush walking etc, New Zealand if great for just relaxing.Her are stats for the ammount of New Zealanders comming to Australia as tourist a yearCountry of Residence New Zealand 10 8 40011 441 5001 41 001 46 40014 4 10015 40 70016 60 60017 61 10018 640 5001 660 800This shows we have a desirable counrty fro them to come too, this is for many reasons but one of them is it is so close and easy for them so acess. There are so many things to do and see its no wonder so many tourist come to Australia. Link/Comparison Number Political RelationsAustralia and New Zealand have been closely linked since the early colonial periods of both countries. These links have historically been so close there was even the possibility late last century of New Zealand joining the Australian colonies in a new federation.At a government to government level, the relationship that Australia has with New Zealand is better developed and more extensive than with any other country. The Prime Ministers of the two countries meet annually and consult frequently. For a number of years the Foreign Ministers of Australia and New Zealand have met twice yearly to discuss the overall relationship and foreign policy co-operation. The Trade and Defence Ministers meet their counterparts annually. New Zealand Ministers and their senior officials participate, with their Australian Federal and State counterparts, in many of the Ministerial council meetings which span the Australian domestic policy agendas. In many of these meetings New Zealand attends as a full member, in others as an observer. There is constant exchange of officials between the two governments. The Foreign Affairs and Trade ministries of the two countries exchange officers every year, as do the Defence departments. Information and assessments are regularly exchanged between the two governments.Today there are many areas where people from both countries, including those at the state level in Australia, participate in 'Australasian' meetings and conferences. As well as a comprehensive network of official contacts, there is a huge volume of informal contacts in policy areas that stretches beyond government to non-governmental organisations, business, academia and cultural contacts. All are relevant to the way in which both countries pursue their foreign policy interests together.The Closer Economic Relations (CER) agreement, which took effect on January 1, 18, enabled the relationship to become closer, creating a free trade area between the two countries and facilitating the development of dramatically increased two-way trade and investment. Economically, our two countries are now enormously important to each other. Australia is New Zealands largest trading partner and New Zealand is Australias fourth largest trading partner. Investment has become very substantial, and is broadly balanced.Our close political realations are being show right now thorugh a current affair. New Zealand is willing to process 150 refugees/immigrants, Australia offerent to fund New Zealand to accept them, but New Zealands prime minister, Ms Helen Clark said her country would fund the refugees. Unlike Nauru who are accepting the money. Personally I do not find it is a wise decision for Nauru to accept them even with Australia's funding because thier economy cannot support these people.- More information on this topic in the new article attached, "Howard's 'Pacific soulution' all at Sea"Link/Comparison Number DefenceWhile a formal marriage between the countries did not occur, there has always been a strong trans-Tasman sense of family. Migration, trade and defence ties have helped shape that relationship. The ANZAC tradition, originating in 115 in Gallipoli, did much to cement the bonds.ANZAC Day on 5 April each year marks the anniversary of the first major military action fought together by Australian and New Zealand forces during the First World War. ANZAC stands for Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. The Anzacs formed part of the allied expedition that set out to capture the Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey (then part of the Ottoman Empire). They landed at Gallipoli on 5 April 115. Australia and New Zealand forces have since operated in close combination during World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War and in recent peacekeeping arrangements, notably in Bougainville and East Timor. ANZAC Day is commemorated as a public holiday in both countries with memorial ceremonies held at various locations.Times when Australia and New Zealand have worked togetherEast TimorImmediately following the turmoil in East Timor in 1 an international force - INTERFET - was formed under Australian leadership to restore peace and security. This was achieved over a period of five months in difficult circumstances with no loss of life to is personnel through military action. The success of INTERFET involved Australian and New Zealand military personnel, and continues to do since the transition to the United Nations Transitional Authority in East Timor (UNTAET). BougainvilleAustralia supported and assisted New Zealand's successful efforts in 17 to promote negotiations on the Bougainville situation, first among the Bougainville groupings and then between them and the Papua New Guinea government. These resulted in late 17 in a Truce Monitoring Group led by New Zealand. On 1 May 18 a Peace Monitoring Group under Australian leadership succeeded the Truce Monitoring Group. Australian leaders have warmly acknowledged New Zealand's crucial role in initiating and continuing the process which led to the Bougainville ceasefire.Five Power Defence Arrangement (FPDA)The Five Power Defence Arrangements were adopted in 171. The member nations - Australia, Malaysia, Singapore, the United Kingdom and New Zealand - agreed to consult on what steps to take in the event of any external threat to Malaysia or Singapore. In peacetime, the parties exercise their forces together and undertake other training activities. Since 11, the Defence Ministers have met every three years. At their meeting in July 000 Ministers reaffirmed their commitment to the FPDA and its ongoing relevance to member countries and regional security. They ratified the trend towards more joint exercises of the air, naval and land forces, which has already been occurring by consensus among the five members. They also agreed on the importance of taking further steps to improve the operational capability and interoperability of member nations' forces. Australian Defence Minister John Moore stated these outcomes are seen as positive by Australia. The FPDA has succeeded for almost 0 years, because of its proven flexibility and ability to adapt to changes in regional and national circumstances. Today, it has shown that it continues to be a vigorous and evolving organisation. As an established multilateral security framework, the FPDA has a unique role in Asia. It is of strategic benefit to all member nations and, in Australia's view, to the wider Asia Pacific region, said Mr Moore. Australia commits considerable resources to the FPDA's activities. Our involvement is a practical demonstration of our commitment to the security of Singapore and Malaysia. The FPDA is a key element of our very close bilateral defence ties with both those nations. Link/Comparison Number 4SportSport is another notable area of contact between the two countries. Australias sporting triumphs and rivalries are the source of much interest for followers everywhere, and frequently involve contests with New Zealand teams and individuals. Interest and participation in sports is a major feature of life in Australia including the uniquely Australian sport of Australian Rules Football. Team sports in which Australian men or women have enjoyed consistent international and regional success are cricket, rugby league, netball, rugby union and surf life saving. Individual Australians have also won their way to the top of various codes and international events such as the Olympics, notably in tennis, swimming, golf and motorcycle racing. The long list of champions also includes racehorses - including the disputed Phar Lap - often made famous at Australias biggest annual sporting event, the Melbourne Cup.Many Australians also visit New Zealand for the great snowy mountains, with long vertical trails it is any skier/snowboarders dream. There are also many New Zealanders that come to Australia for the great surf. Information on the countries Stats/Other InfoAustraliaGeographyLocation Oceania, continent between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific OceanGeographic coordinates 7 00 S, 1 00 EMap references OceaniaArea total 7,686,850 sq kmland 7,617,0 sq kmwater 68,0 sq kmnote includes Lord Howe Island and Macquarie IslandArea - comparative slightly smaller than the USLand boundaries 0 kmCoastline 5,760 kmMaritime claims contiguous zone 4 nmcontinental shelf 00 nm or to the edge of the continental marginexclusive economic zone 00 nmterritorial sea 1 nmClimate generally arid to semiarid; temperate in south and east; tropical in northTerrain mostly low plateau with deserts; fertile plain in southeastElevation extremeslowest point Lake Eyre -15 mhighest point Mount Kosciuszko , mNatural resources bauxite, coal, iron ore, copper, tin, silver, uranium, nickel, tungsten, mineral sands, lead, zinc, diamonds, natural gas, petroleumLand usearable land 6%permanent crops 0%permanent pastures 54%forests and woodland 1%other 1% (1 est.)Irrigated land 1,070 sq km (1 est.)Natural hazards cyclones along the coast; severe droughtsEnvironment - current issuessoil erosion from overgrazing, industrial development, urbanization, and poor farming practices; soil salinity rising due to the use of poor quality water; desertification; clearing for agricultural purposes threatens the natural habitat of many unique animal and plant species; the Great Barrier Reef off the northeast coast, the largest coral reef in the world, is threatened by increased shipping and its popularity as a tourist site; limited natural fresh water resourcesEnvironment - international agreements party toAntarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 8, Tropical Timber 4, Wetlands, Whalingsigned, but not ratifiedClimate Change-Kyoto Protocol, DesertificationGeography - noteworlds smallest continent but sixth-largest country; population concentrated along the eastern and southeastern coasts; regular, tropical, invigorating, sea breeze known as the Doctor occurs along the west coast in the summerPeoplePopulation 1,16,08 (July 000 est.)Age structure0-14 years1% (male ,05,05; female 1,54,54)15-64 years67% (male 6,458,08; female 6,,475)65 years and over1% (male 1,040,50; female 1,40,7) (000 est.)Population growth rate 1.0% (000 est.)Birth rate 1.08 births/1,000 population (000 est.)Death rate 7.1 deaths/1,000 population (000 est.)Net migration rate4.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (000 est.)Sex ratioat birth 1.06 male(s)/femaleunder 15 years 1.05 male(s)/female15-64 years 1.0 male(s)/female65 years and over 0.78 male(s)/female total population 0. male(s)/female (000 est.)Infant mortality rate 5.04 deaths/1,000 live births (000 est.)Life expectancy at birthtotal population 7.75 yearsmale 76. yearsfemale 8.74 years (000 est.)Total fertility rate 1.7 children born/woman (000 est.)Ethnic groups Caucasian %, Asian 7%, aboriginal and other 1%Religions Anglican 6.1%, Roman Catholic 6%, other Christian 4.%, non-Christian 11%Languages English, native languagesLiteracy definition age 15 and over can read and write EconomyEconomy - overviewAustralia has a prosperous Western-style capitalist economy, with a per capita GDP at the level of the four dominant West European economies. Rich in natural resources, Australia is a major exporter of agricultural products, minerals, metals, and fossil fuels. Commodities account for 57% of the value of total exports, so that a downturn in world commodity prices can have a big impact on the economy. The government is pushing for increased exports of manufactured goods, but competition in international markets continues to be severe. While Australia has suffered from the low growth and high unemployment characterizing the OECD countries in the early 10s and during the recent financial problems in East Asia, the economy has expanded at a solid 4% annual growth pace in the last five years. Canberras emphasis on reforms is a key factor behind the economys resilience to the regional crisis and its stronger than expected growth rate. Growth in 000 will depend on key international commodity prices, the extent of recovery in nearby Asian economies, and the strength of US and European markets.GDP purchasing power parity - $416. billion (1 est.)GDP - real growth rate 4.% (1 est.)GDP - per capita purchasing power parity - $,00 (1 est.)GDP - composition by sector agriculture%industry 6%services 71% (18 est.)Labor force 8. million (December 1)Labor force - by occupation services 7%, industry %, agriculture 5% (17 est.)Unemployment rate 7.5% (1)Budget revenues $0.7 billionexpenditures $8.04 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY8/ est.)Industries mining, industrial and transportation equipment, food processing, chemicals, steelNew Zealand GeographyLocation Oceania, islands in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of AustraliaGeographic coordinates 41 00 S, 174 00 EMap references OceaniaAreatotal 68,680 sq kmland 68,670 sq kmwater 10 sq kmnote includes Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Campbell Island, Chatham Islands, and Kermadec IslandsArea - comparative about the size of ColoradoCoastline 15,14 kmClimate temperate with sharp regional contrastsTerrain predominately mountainous with some large coastal plainsElevation extremeslowest point Pacific Ocean 0 mhighest point Mount Cook ,764 mNatural resources natural gas, iron ore, sand, coal, timber, hydropower, gold, limestoneLand usearable land %permanent crops 5%permanent pastures 50%forests and woodland 8%other 8% (1 est.)Irrigated land ,850 sq km (1 est.)Natural hazardsearthquakes are common, though usually not severe; volcanic activityEnvironment - current issuesdeforestation; soil erosion; native flora and fauna hard-hit by species introduced from outsideEnvironment - international agreementsparty to Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 8, Tropical Timber 4, Wetlands, WhalingGeography - noteabout 80% of the population lives in citiesPeoplePopulation ,81,76 (July 000 est.)Age structure0-14 years % (male 440,84; female 41,740)15-64 years 66% (male 1,6,710; female 1,54,58)65 years and over 11% (male 11,511; female 4,01) (000 est.)Population growth rate 1.17% (000 est.)Birth rate 14.8 births/1,000 population (000 est.)Death rate 7.57 deaths/1,000 population (000 est.)Net migration rate 4.5 migrant(s)/1,000 population (000 est.)Sex ratioat birth1.05 male(s)/femaleunder 15 years1.05 male(s)/female15-64 years1.01 male(s)/female65 years and over0.77 male(s)/femaletotal population0. male(s)/female (000 est.)Economy - overviewSince 184 the government has accomplished major economic restructuring, moving an agrarian economy dependent on concessionary British market access toward a more industrialized, free market economy that can compete globally. This dynamic growth has boosted real incomes, broadened and deepened the technological capabilities of the industrial sector, and contained inflationary pressures. Inflation remains among the lowest in the industrial world. Per capita GDP has been moving up toward the levels of the big West European economies. New Zealands heavy dependence on trade leaves its growth prospects vulnerable to economic performance in Asia, Europe, and the US. Moderate growth probably will characterize 000.GDPpurchasing power parity - $6.8 billion (1 est.)GDP - real growth rate.1% (1 est.)GDP - per capitapurchasing power parity - $17,400 (1 est.)GDP - composition by sectoragriculture8%industry%services6% (18)Inflation rate (consumer prices)1.% (1 est.)Labor force1.86 million (18)Labor force - by occupationservices 65%, industry 5%, agriculture 10% (15)Unemployment rate7% (1 est.)Budgetrevenues$4. billionexpenditures$.7 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY7/8 est.)Industriesfood processing, wood and paper products, textiles, machinery, transportation equipment, banking and insurance, tourism, mining

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Chapters 2 and 3 of Gulliver's Travels

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In Gulliver's Travels, Jonathan Swift satirizes all of English society of his time. More than any other group, it seems clear that the Lilliputians who capture and "control" Gulliver are representative of the politicians who ran England in Swift's time. In attempting to control Gulliver, the Lilliputians exhibit the characteristics of arrogance, greed, and ambition. Each of these traits, while perhaps necessary for political mobility, are given a negative connotation. Moreover, they seem to instill in Gulliver an inclination toward submission. In Swift's satire, this is a commentary on the attitudes and actions of the English nobility and the effect on the average English citizen. According to Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary, arrogance is "that species of pride which . . . exalts the worth of importance of the person to an undue degree." The first instance of such arrogance in Chapter is in the description of the Emperor on page 81. In naming specifically those features that can be identified as "royal," Swift satirizes the ideal English man, so to speak. The Prince is tall, "strong and masculine, with an Austrian lip, and arched nose, his complexion olive, his countenance erect." Additionally, he has well proportioned body and limbs, graceful motions and a majestic deportment. Swift also comments on the prime age of an absolute monarch, which lies somewhere after 1 and before "twenty-eight years and three quarters." The importance of such features of a ruling monarch is greatly exaggerrated, which implies arrogance. It is possible that one reason the Emperor maintains power even "past his prime" is that he is also the ideal Lilliputian. There is, on page 8, another description of the Emperor of Lilliput. Although written by Skyresh Bolgolam, a courtier, it seems to describe the Emperor's view of himself. The Emperor is "delight," "terror," "pleasant," "comfortable," "fruitful," and "dreadful." It seems as if he is more than a little taken with himself and his power. This passage contains other evidence of Lilliputian arrogance, as well. Although it is a document discussing Gulliver's release, the articles don't even call him by name. To the Lilliputians, he is still "Man-Mountain," even after he has "earned" his release. He is a monster in their custody. A final indication of arrogance in Lilliput is in the structure of society. There is, as in England, a system of ranked nobility. Additionally, there are servants. Throughout Chapters and , Gulliver himself seems to be affected by the Lilliputians' power. He submits to them, even going so far as to sign a treaty of sorts regarding his responsibility after being set free. On page 0, he mentions that the Emperor hoped that Gulliver himself "should prove a useful servant." The idea that the Lilliputians really had such control over Gulliver, or "Man-Mountain," as they referred to him, may seem absurd, but the fact is that Gulliver himself subscribed to the idea. This is yet another example of the arrogance of the Lilliputians, and its effect on a man prepared to accept the role of a commoner in a noble society.

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The second vice evident in Swift's satire is greed. Greed is defined in The American Heritage Dictionary as "an excessive desire to acquire or possess more than what one needs or deserves." On page 85, after having taken an inventory of Gulliver's possessions, the Emperor has his men seize his scimitar, pocket pistols, and money pouch. It is difficult to identify what uses the Lilliputians could possibly have for weapons they could not lift and money they could not spend. However, they seem to be aware that in some society, these articles have value, and desire the goods for that reason. The greed of the Lilliputians, or at least of their nobility, is also evident in their attire. When the Emperor first approaches Gulliver, he wore on his head "a light helmet of gold, adorned with jewels, and a plume on the crest." (81). This helmet, which couldn't have been any use in battle, is merely for show. Similarly, the hilt and scabbard of the Emperor's sword were "gold enriched with diamonds." Like the treasured weapons and armor of most nobility, these are simply evidence of wealth. Although the Emperor's reign had been "generally victorious," Gulliver says on page 8 that the subjects of Lilliput "are bound to attend him [the Emperor] in his wars at their own expense." It may be assumed that this expense includes not only monetary cost but also the expense of life. Each of these facts seems to parallel the role of a monarch in any society, according to Swift. The final vice identified by Swift in his satire of English society is ambition. In fact, it is not widely accepted that ambition is a bad trait. This characteristic is actually portrayed in the most comical way and is more of a commentary on the circus that is the political world than on the negative aspects of ambition. The first instance of the games played by ambitious politicians is in the rope-dancing on page 86. Feats on the tightrope are performed only by "those persons who are candidates for great employments, and high favor, at court." While the persons who participate are not always of noble birth, it is most commonly the nobles who compete for positions at court. One important line on page 86 indicates that the these rope-dancing contests take place "when a great office is vacant either by death or disgrace (which often happens)." Evidently, in Lilliputian society, it doesn't take much to lose your place in the hierarchy of power and in order to regain such power, you must be a performer. More than any other part of Chapters and , Swift's description of the rope-dancing is a satire of the English political arena. A second example of ambition in Lilliputian politics is found on page 87. In order to claim the Emperor's favor, nobles must "undergo a trial of dexterity very different than the former." Gulliver refers to this as "leaping and creeping" and describes it as a "trial of dexterity." This exercise is not used to award political power, but to identify nobles according to the Emperor's favor in the public eye, through the use of colored sashes. In English society, this might represent the vast difference in the dress of the nobles and peasants, all according to power awarded indiscriminately by the absolute monarch. Throughout Gulliver's Travels, there is satire. In his description of the Lilliputian nobility, Swift satirizes the personality traits of arrogance, greed and ambition. Additionally, he finds humor in the actions of these nobles. What makes this satire ring most true is that Gulliver immediately falls into the role of commoner. It seems as if the Lilliputian nobility most closely resemble the ruling powers of the society from whence he came. For this reason, Gulliver accepts the restrictions the Emperor placed on him and even seems to be impressed by the political acrobatics he witnesses at court. Lemuel Gulliver is representative of the typical English commoner just as the nobles of the court of Lilliput are representative of the English nobility of Swift's day.

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