Courtship and Marriage Study Guide

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Chapter 15 Major Institutions 1) Family of Orgin- Family into which you are borned. ) Family of Procreation- Family that you will begin when you marry and have children.

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) Nuclear Family- You, your partner, your siblings or you, your spouse, and your children. 4) Binuclear Family- A family in which the members live in two separate households. 5) Extended Family- Not only your nuclear family but extended family as well.Structural Functionalism- Views the family as an institution with values, norms, and activities meant to provide stability for the larger society.Conflict Framework- Recognize that family members have different goals and values that result in conflict.Symbolic Interaction Framework- Marriage and families represent symbolic worlds in which the various members give meaning to each other's behavior. Looking Glass Self- The image people have of themselves is based on the reflection of what other people tell them about themselves. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy- Once people define situations and the behaviors they are expected to engage in, they are able to behave toward one another in predictable ways.Chapter Role- Beliefs about the proper role relationships between men and women in any given society.Status- A social position within a group or society.Belief- Functions-Theories of Gender Role Development- Sociobiology- A theory that emphasizes that there are biological explanations for social behavior. Social Learning Theory- Emphasizes the roles of reward and punishment in explaining how a child learns gender role behavior. Cognitive Developmental Theory- Reflects a blend of biological and social learning views.Chapter Steinberg's Triangular Elements of Love Passion Intimacy CommitmentLove Styles Ludic- Views love as a game, refuses to become dependant on any one person, and does not encourage another's intimacy. Pragma- Exhibits love that is rational and logical. Does not become involved in interracial, long-distance, or age discrepant partners because logic argues against doing so. Eros- The erotic lover is consumed by passion and romance. Mania- A person with a mania love style feels intense emotion and sexual passion but is out of control. Storage- A calm, soothing, nonsexual love devoid of intense passion. Agape- Love that is selfless and giving, expecting nothing in return. The love parents have for their children is often described as the agape love style. Theories of Origin of Love Evolutionary Theory- Love has an evolutionary purpose by providing a bonding mechanism between the parents during the time their offspring are dependant infants. Learning Theory- Emphasizes that love feelings develop in response to certain behaviors occurring in certain contexts. Psychosexual Theory- Love results from blocked biological sexual desires. Ego-Ideal Theory- Says that love springs from a state of dissatisfaction with oneself and represents a vain urge to reach one's "ego-ideal". Biochemical Theory- Emphasizes that hormones and chemicals are an important basis for love. Attachment Theory- Emphasizes that a primary motivation in life is to be connected with other people.Chapter 4Bundling- A courtship custom practiced by the Puritans. It involved the would-be groom sleeping in the girls bed in her parent's home. Both partners were to be fully clothed, and a board was placed between them.Consequences of Meeting Partner Online -Potential to fall in love quickly as a result of intense mutual disclosure. -Not being able to observe non-verbal cues/gestures. -Moving too quickly throughout the relationship (E-Mail to phone to meeting to marriage) -DeceptionTypes of Cohabitation Here and Now- Partners have an emotional/sexual relationship and want to live together because they enjoy each other. Focused on the here and now, not the future of the relationship. Testers- Involved partners who want to assess whether staying together and getting married would be right for them. Engaged- The partners are formally engaged and want to live together until the wedding. Money Savers- The partners live together primarily out of economic convenience. Separated- These are couples in which one or both partners are formally separated from previous spouses. They are living together until the divorce is final. Pension Partners- Partners are living together because marriage would result in the loss of benefits from a previous marriage. (Widow receiving SS/pension benefits.) Cohabitants Forever- Some couples view living together as a permanent alternative to marriage. Domestic Partnership- A homosexual relationship in which individuals who live together are emotionally and financially interdependent and are given some kind of official recognition by a city or corporation to receive partner benefits. Chapter 5Endogamy- Cultural expectation to select a marriage partner within one's own social group, such as race, religion, and social class.Exogamy- In mate selection, the social expectation that you will marry outside of your family group and avoid sex and marriage with a sibling or other close relative.Homogamy- In mate selection, selecting someone with similar characteristics, such as interests, values, age, race, religion, and education.Propinquity- The tendency to marry someone who lives and works in the same social context.Theories of Mate Selection Complementary Needs Theory- States that we tend to select mates whose needs are opposite and complementary to our own needs. Exchange Theory- Based on assessing who offers the greatest rewards at the lowest cost. Prin. Of Least Interest- States the the person who has the least interest in the relationship controls the relationship.Parental Characteristics- A man looks for a wife who has the similar characteristics to those of his mother and vice versa for the woman.Chapter 6 Stereotypes of Being Single Ugly Homosexual "Bitch"Single Parenting and it's Effects(face numerous challenges, including some of the following issues) Satisfaction of the emotional and disciplinary needs of the child. Satisfaction of adult emotional needs. Satisfaction of adult sexual needs. Lack of Money. Guardianship. Prenatal Care Negative life outcomes for the child. Absence of a father.How do people view themselves if asked if they are homosexual?How does religion act toward someone being gay? Most religions teach that homosexuality is sinful and prohibited by God. The Catholic Church rejects all homosexual expression.Chapter 7What is marital commitment? The intent to maintain and stay in a relationship.Cultural Differences in Marriage Chinese, Japanese, and Korean marriages are regarded less as a commitment of the spouses to each other and more as a commitment to the eldest male offspring, who marries to support the family of his parents. The wife moves into the husband's parent's home where she is expected to cook, clean, and be obedient to the wishes of her husband's parents. African-American marriages have very strong family ties. Rite of Passage- An event that marks the transition from one social status to another. Starting school, getting a drivers license, and graduating from high school or college are all examples.Chapter 8Techniques of Effective Communication1. Make communication a priority. Establish and maintain eye contact.. Ask open-ended questions.4. Use reflective listening.5. Use "I" statements.6. Avoid brutal criticism.7. Say positive things about your partner.8. Tell your partner what you want.. Stay focused on the issue.10. Make specific resolutions to disagreements.11. Give congruent messages.1. Share power.1. Keep the process of communication going.14. Fight fair.Defense Mechanisms Escapism- The simultaneous denial and withdrawal from a problem. Rationalization- The cognitive justification for one's own behavior that unconsciously conceals one's true motives. Projection- This occurs when one spouse unconsciously attributes his or her own feelings, attitudes, or desires to the partner. For example, the wife who desires to have an affair may accuse her husband of being unfaithful to her. Displacement- This involves shifting your feelings, thoughts, or behaviors from the person who evokes them onto someone else. Chapter Absolutism- Refers to a belief system based on unconditional allegiance to the authority of science, law, tradition, or religion.Relativism- This is a value system that emphasizes that decisions should be made in the context of a particular situation (hence, values are relative).Hedonism- The belief that the ultimate value and motivation for human actions lie in the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. "If it feels good, do it."What are the behaviors associated with contracting HIV? Engaging in casual sex. Using no form of contraception.Spectatoring- It is an obstacle of sexual functioning which involves mentally observing your sexual performance and that of your partner.Chapter 10What motivates people to have children? Family Friends Religion Government Cultural ObservancesWhat are the benefits of being an only child? You get all of the attention.Reproduction Technologies Hormone Therapy- Induce ovulation Artificial Insemination- Sperm is deposited directly into the cervix. Surrogate Mother- A fertilized egg is placed in the uterus of another woman. Ovum Transfer- The sperm of a male is deposited into a surrogate mother. In Vitro Fertilization- Embryo is created in a lab using egg and sperm from a couple.Risks of taking Fertility Drugs Having twins or triplets. Different Types of Contraception Hormonal Contraceptives- The Pill, Norplant, Depo-Provera, Lunelle Once-A-Month Shot Male Condom Female Condom- Fits in the woman's vagina. Diaphragm- Inserted into the vagina, covers the cervix and prevents sperm from entering. Vaginal Spermicides Natural Family Planning- periodic abstinence, rhythm method, and fertility awareness Withdrawl and Douching Emergency Contraception Sterilization- Woman- Oophorectomy, Hysterectomy, Salpingectomy, or Laparoscopy Man- VasectomieChapter 11Postpartum Depression- A reaction more severe than the "baby blues" to the birth of one's baby, characterized by crying, irritability, loss of appetite, and difficulty in sleeping.Baby Blues- Transitory symptoms of depression twenty-four to forty-eight hours after a baby is born.Different Approaches to Child Rearing Developmental-Maturational Approach- Views what children do, think, and feel as being influenced by their genetic inheritance. Behavioral Approach- An approach to childrearing based on the principle that behavior is learned through classical and operant conditioning. Parent Effectiveness Training Approach- A model of childrearing that focuses on trying to understand what a child is feeling and experiencing it in the here and now. Socioteleological Approach- An approach to childrearing that explains children's behavior as resulting from the attempt to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Reality Therapy Approach- An approach to childrearing that emphasizes how a child's behavior is purposeful.Chapter 1What are the benefits of a dual earner marriage? Afford expensive homes, cars, vacations, and greater opportunites for their children.Second-Shift- The housework and child care that employed women do when they return home from their jobs.What is the quality of day-care today? Only 14% were rated good/excellent 74% received a rating just above the minimalRole-Compartmentalization- Separating the roles of work and home so that they do not think about or dwell on the problems of one when they are at the physical place of the other.Commodification of Leisure- The perception of free time as a consumption opportunity whereby one expects to spend money to enjoy leisure.Chapter 1Read Chapter 1 Understand abuse; when and why it occurs. Domestic Violence Child Abuse IssuesChapter 14Macro Factors Contributing to Divorce1. Egalitarian Role Perceptions. Increased Economic Independence of Women. Changing Family Functions and Structure4. Liberalized Divorce Laws5. Fewer Moral and Religious Sanctions6. More Divorce Models7. Mobility/Anonymity8. Individualistic Cultural Goal of HappinessMicro Factors Contributing to Divorce1. Negative Behavior. Lack of Conflict Resolution Skills. Value Changes4. Satiation5. Extramarital Relationship6. Perception that Being Divorced is Better than Being MarriedSatiation- the state in which a stimulus loses its value with repeated exposure.Stages of Divorce1. Pre-separation. Separation. Divorce4. PostdivorceAlternatives to Divorce1. Annulment- returns spouses to their premarital status. (Catholic Church). Separation. Desertion- walking out, disappearingChapter 15Why people remarry to include elderly/widowed. December Marriages- both are elderly. Primary motivation is to escape loneliness or the need for companionship.Boundary Maintenance- Not knowing how do deal with feelings towards ex-spouse when in a new relationship.Conflicts the affect Step-Families Learning to trust in a new relationship. Boundary maintenance with ex-spouse. Meshing finances. Relating to step-children.Chapter 16Resiliency- A family's ability to respond to a crisis in a positive way.ABC-X Model- What people use to help deal with life's problems.1. Developed realistic perspective.. Avoided blame. Sought opportunities for fun.4. Keep destructive impulses in check.5. Intervened early in a crisis.Why do people cheat? They have a strong interest in sex, permissive sexual values, low subjective satisfaction in their existing relationship, and greater sexual opportunities.1. Variety, novelty, and excitement.. Workplace friendships.. Relationship dissatisfaction.4. Revenge5. Homosexual relationship.6. Aging7. Other factors.Signs of Suicide Verbal Signs- Direct statements about suicide such as "I don't want to live anymore." Behavioral Signs- Sadness, Change in sleep patterns, Drop in grades…etc. Situational Signs- Loss of a relationship, Trouble with law or at school, pregnancy…etc.Chapter 17Ageism- The systematic prosecution and degradation of people because they are old.Gerontophobia- A fear or dread of the elderly.Generontology- The study of aging.What makes old people happy? Friendship, companionship, affection, etc.Death and Dying ProcessTHE DANCER'S GIFTIndividualism- A philosophy in which an individual's decisions and actions are based on his or her own wants and needs, rather than on the wants and needs of the group. By smoking in the car, Samantha's mother is putting her own needs first, and Samantha's health and comfort are secondary.Familism- A philosophy in which an individuals decisions and actions are based on the wants and needs of the gamily or other social group, rather than on the individual.Personalism- Interested only in helping out one's own self.Ethnocentrism- The practice of viewing one's own culture as "normal" and superior and viewing other cultures as "weird" or inferior. Marcel feels this way about the behaviors exhibited in America contrast to those in Martinique.Organic Solidarity- Mechanical SolidarityPrejudice- Negative attitudes and feelings toward an entire category of people.Discrimination- Unequal treatment of individuals because of their group membership. Not treated fairly.Power Elite- A small, powerful group of people existing influence on the affairs of a society or community. Example, US Government.Religion- A system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals involving the sacred or supernatural realm.Cult- A relatively small religious group that is considered to be extremist and is usually started by a charismatic leader. Osama bin Laden, CommunistsPolyandry- A form of polygamy in which one wife has or more husbands.Polygyny- A form of polygamy in which one husband has or more wives.Crime- DevianceProtestant Ethic- A belief system that emphasizes the importance of hard work and achievement.Latent Functions- A consequence or outcome that is unintended and not commonly recognized. Latent Functions of college include meeting new friends and possibly a life partner.Manifest Functions- A consequence or outcome that is intended and commonly recognized. College is necessary to get ahead in the work force.Total Institution- An organization in which people are isolated from the rest of society and are under the control of the organizations staff and administration. Examples are prisons and mental health facilities.

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Capture heart of young women

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Capture heart of the young womanWhen I signed up for Introduction to Philosophy at Laney College, it was my intention to learn more about the subject to both understand the articles that others submitted as well as write more thoughtful and probing articles myself. I have always engaged in a sort of armchair philosophy, though most of it was amateur and ignorant of past thinkers. I think I have accomplished my goal, at least in part. I have learned that my constant need to question almost everything and to play devil¡¯s advocate has a name, philosophy, and it has previous practitioners such as Secretes. Some of the results of the class might be viewed as bad, or evil. I entered the class as an agnostic I believed there was a supreme force or superior being(s), but I didn¡¯t know what to call him/her/them/ its, or even how to describe hi,/her/them/its. I am leaving the class bordering on atheism rather than bordering on religion as I entered. I now only see a possibility for a higher power, having no real opinion of it. How could I have an opinion of it? I have never met it, or seen any of its acts, or seen any of its acts, or had it speak to me. In addition, the intense re-evaluation that philosophy values is responsible for this shift. I no longer believe in the word love. What I previously thought was love was not. ¡°Love¡± as I now understand it, means nothing. It is merely a matter of definition, but more important than all of that, philosophy class gives me a reason to think. Thinking hurts and questioning ones beliefs in painful. Man does not want to do it. Living with the status quo is easier then trying to change it. But now I can¡¯t go back ignorance and complacency. I¡¯ve caught the fever of the ruth, or at least have been thoroughly disgusted with lies, and can¡¯t go back.

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In life there are many beautiful things, the dew on a flower in the morning, the sun setting over the ocean, a rainbow after a summer shower, but I would have to say from my limited experience of beautiful watching someone sleep is the epitome of beauty. When you watch someone sleep, you see them for who they are and not for what they want you to see. There are no hidden mysteries about the person, it is just them. I was lucky enough to experience this great event recently. I was so taken back by her that I just wanted to be close to her. I really cannot put into wourds the way I felt about her, but I think the closest thing to describing the feeling would be like a childhood crush. I did not talk to her when I first met her. Just long enough to give me her name a number, which I put in my picket. I thought that it was over, but when I put my hand in my pocket and found a piece of paper with the name and room number of a girl I met the previous day. I decided to go visit the girl. Now normally I would never do anything as stupid as this when my head is clear but doing stupid things is what makes life interesting, plus it builds character, or that is what they tell me. There I am in front of this girl¡¯s room who I have no idea who she is. Wearing clothes that were a little less then flattering at that moment in time. I knocked on her door and she slowly opened it. Looked at me with recollection, she invited me in. I walked in timid at first as the memories of the first meeting came to me, like waves crashing on a sand castle I built so long ago. When I finally got everything in order in my mind, I moved to sit on the bed and we started the old primitive way of communication, speech. We talk about this and we talk about that . Nothing really earth shattering, but thenormal getting-to-know-you stuff that we all go though when we first meet someone. I talk about myself and she talks about herself. After many cigarettes and much self exploration, I go up to leave, O promised her I would see her later. Now the fun begins because I can¡¯t look to pressed over her but I can¡¯t look so indifferent that she loses interests in me. Now normally I would wait something like five day to call her, that industry standard, but in luau of this; golden rule to get woman which I ignored and I went to visit her the next day, we hang out again, still getting to know each other. Same thing really, this time I am asking questions to find out what I desire to know. About her family, life, town, stuff you rally don¡¯t go up to a complete stranger and tell them. I left around dinnertime and go hang out with my friends. Later in that night I am telling my friend about how much I like this girl, I point out her room, and being the great person he is he goes up her window and told her to come out and play. We were supposed to go play pool in the pub but that idea go scratched. We ended up sitting and taling, not hat I mind it at all I rally love talking to people, getting to know them rally well. The talking goes on for about two hours them, my friend gets an insane craving for food at 1100p.m.. He leaves us and ware left to talk. There we are for about thirty minutes when we realize that he is not coming back. She invites me to her room, we watch some TV and she falls asleep and I get ready to leave trying not to disturb her, sit up in bed glance over to her, eyes taking in the sight that took my breath away, seeing her sleep. So peaceful, so helpless. I try to pull my gaze away but it ¡¯s like a magnet that is pulling me in. I have to look at her. The rise and fall of her chest as her breaths, not worrying about a thing, the smile that is on her face as she is a million miles away dreaming about something. To put in to words I do not have the ability to express what it looks like, other then it is breath taking. In my heart, I know that I have found what makes life worth living. Seen the beauty those poets write about, artists paint about, their ¡°Donna Angelica.¡± The dreams that lovers dream about, watching someone sleep, is something thing that I wish everyone could experience at least once. Sweet Dreams.. Is it wrong to create art for reasons other than creating art? Stories abound of young men writing poems to catch a certain young lady¡¯s eye and heart, but is this wrong Talk to ¡°real¡± artists, and they¡¯ll most likely claim to create art for art¡¯s sake. Is this use of art more noble than art as a means to an end? I would like to say that it is not, that art is justified for any reason. But what do I know.. I don¡¯t consider myself an artist. I guess I¡¯m one of the young men writing my feelings down to capture the heart of a young woman. There has to be an easier way at letting people gets to know you than baring you soul in the pages of a low-circulation magazine. However, if there is, I¡¯m not privy to it. I¡¯m not good at socializing. Big group frighten me. I am not comedian enough to be the center of attention, and I wouldn¡¯t want to be even if I could. So this is my way of opening up to the world. I hope I have not scared you, and I thank you for staying with me.

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History of Computers

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History of Computer History of the Computer Industry in America America and the Computer Industry Only once in a lifetime will a new invention come about to touch every aspect of our lives. Such a device that changes the way we work, live, and play is a special one, indeed. A machine that has done all this and more now exists in nearly every business in the U.S. and one out of every two households (Hall, 156). This incredible invention is the computer. The electronic computer has been around for over a half-century, but its ancestors have been around for 000 years. However, only in the last 40 years has it changed the American society. From the first wooden abacus to the latest high-speed microprocessor, the computer has changed nearly every aspect of peoples lives for the better. The very earliest existence of the modern day computers ancestor is the abacus. These date back to almost 000 years ago. It is simply a wooden rack holding parallel wires on which beads are strung. When these beads are moved along the wire according to programming rules that the user must memorize, all ordinary arithmetic operations can be performed (Soma, 14). The next innovation in computers took place in 164 when Blaise Pascal invented the first digital calculating machine. It could only add numbers and they had to be entered by turning dials. It was designed to help Pascals father who was a tax collector (Soma, ). In the early 1800Õs, a mathematics professor named Charles Babbage designed an automatic calculation machine. It was steam powered and could store up to 1000 50-digit numbers. Built in to his machine were operations that included everything a modern general-purpose computer would need. It was programmed by--and stored data on--cards with holes punched in them, appropriately called punch cards. His inventions were failures for the most part because of the lack of precision machining techniques used at the time and the lack of demand for such a device (Soma, 46). After Babbage, people began to lose interest in computers. However, between 1850 and 100 there were great advances in mathematics and physics that began to rekindle the interest (Osborne, 45). Many of these new advances involved complex calculations and formulas that were very time consuming for human calculation. The first major use for a computer in the U.S. was during the 180 census. Two men, Herman Hollerith and James Powers, developed a new punched-card system that could automatically read information on cards without human intervention (Gulliver, 8). Since the population of the U.S. was increasing so fast, the computer was an essential tool in tabulating the totals. These advantages were noted by commercial industries and soon led to the development of improved punch-card business-machine systems by International Business Machines (IBM), Remington-Rand, Burroughs, and other corporations. By modern standards the punched-card machines were slow, typically processing from 50 to 50 cards per minute, with each card holding up to 80 digits. At the time, however, punched cards were an enormous step forward; they provided a means of input, output, and memory storage on a massive scale. For more than 50 years following their first use, punched-card machines did the bulk of the worlds business computing and a good portion of the computing work in science (Chposky, 7). By the late 10s punched-card machine techniques had become so well established and reliable that Howard Hathaway Aiken, in collaboration with engineers at IBM, undertook construction of a large automatic digital computer based on standard IBM electromechanical parts. Aikens machine, called the Harvard Mark I, handled -digit numbers and could perform all four arithmetic operations. Also, it had special built-in programs to handled logarithms and trigonometric functions. The Mark I was controlled from prepunched paper tape. Output was by card punch and electric typewriter. It was slow, requiring to 5 seconds for a multiplication, but it was fully automatic and could complete long computations without human intervention (Chposky, 10).

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The outbreak of World War II produced a desperate need for computing capability, especially for the military. New weapons systems were produced which needed trajectory tables and other essential data. In 14, John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchley, and their associates at the University of Pennsylvania decided to build a high-speed electronic computer to do the job. This machine became known as ENIAC, for Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator. It could multiply two numbers at the rate of 00 products per second, by finding the value of each product from a multiplication table stored in its memory. ENIAC was thus about 1,000 times faster than the previous generation of computers (Dolotta, 47).ENIAC used 18,000 standard vacuum tubes, occupied 1800 square feet of floor space, and used about 180,000 watts of electricity. It used punched-card input and output. The ENIAC was very difficult to program because one had to essentially re-wire it to perform whatever task he wanted the computer to do. It was, however, efficient in handling the particular programs for which it had been designed. ENIAC is generally accepted as the first successful high-speed electronic digital computer and was used in many applications from 146 to 155 (Dolotta, 50). Mathematician John von Neumann was very interested in the ENIAC. In 145 he undertook a theoretical study of computation that demonstrated that a computer could have a very simple and yet be able to execute any kind of computation effectively by means of proper programmed control without the need for any changes in hardware. Von Neumann came up with incredible ideas for methods of building and organizing practical, fast computers. These ideas, which came to be referred to as the stored-program technique, became fundamental for future generations of high-speed digital computers and were universally adopted (Hall, 7). The first wave of modern programmed electronic computers to take advantage of these improvements appeared in 147. This group included computers using random access memory (RAM), which is a memory designed to give almost constant access to any particular piece of information (Hall, 75). These machines had punched-card or punched-tape input and output devices and RAMs of 1000-word capacity. Physically, they were much more compact than ENIAC some were about the size of a grand piano and required 500 small electron tubes. This was quite an improvement over the earlier machines. The first-generation stored-program computers required considerable maintenance, usually attained 70% to 80% reliable operation, and were used for 8 to 1 years. Typically, they were programmed directly in machine language, although by the mid-150s progress had been made in several aspects of advanced programming. This group of machines included EDVAC and UNIVAC, the first commercially available computers (Hazewindus, 10). The UNIVAC was developed by John W. Mauchley and John Eckert, Jr. in the 150Õs. Together they had formed the Mauchley-Eckert Computer Corporation, Americas first computer company in the 140Õs. During the development of the UNIVAC, they began to run short on funds and sold their company to the larger Remington-Rand Corporation. Eventually they built a working UNIVAC computer. It was delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau in 151 where it was used to help tabulate the U.S. population (Hazewindus, 14). Early in the 150s two important engineering discoveries changed the electronic computer field. The first computers were made with vacuum tubes, but by the late 150Õs computers were being made out of transistors, which were smaller, less expensive, more reliable, and more efficient (Shallis, 40). In 15, Robert Noyce, a physicist at the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation, invented the integrated circuit, a tiny chip of silicon that contained an entire electronic circuit. Gone was the bulky, unreliable, but fast machine; now computers began to become more compact, more reliable and have more capacity (Shallis, 4). These new technical discoveries rapidly found their way into new models of digital computers. Memory storage capacities increased 800% in commercially available machines by the early 160s and speeds increased by an equally large margin. These machines were very expensive to purchase or to rent and were especially expensive to operate because of the cost of hiring programmers to perform the complex operations the computers ran. Such computers were typically found in large computer centers--operated by industry, government, and private laboratories--staffed with many programmers and support personnel (Rogers, 77). By 156, 76 of IBMs large computer mainframes were in use, compared with only 46 UNIVACs (Chposky, 15). In the 160s efforts to design and develop the fastest possible computers with the greatest capacity reached a turning point with the completion of the LARC machine for Livermore Radiation Laboratories by the Sperry-Rand Corporation, and the Stretch computer by IBM. The LARC had a core memory of 8,000 words and multiplied in 10 microseconds. Stretch was provided with several ranks of memory having slower access for the ranks of greater capacity, the fastest access time being less than 1 microseconds and the total capacity in the vicinity of 100 million words (Chposky, 147). During this time the major computer manufacturers began to offer a range of computer capabilities, as well as various computer-related equipment. These included input means such as consoles and card feeders; output means such as page printers, cathode-ray-tube displays, and graphing devices; and optional magnetic-tape and magnetic-disk file storage. These found wide use in business for such applications as accounting, payroll, inventory control, ordering supplies, and billing. Central processing units (CPUs) for such purposes did not need to be very fast arithmetically and were primarily used to access large amounts of records on file. The greatest number of computer systems were delivered for the larger applications, such as in hospitals for keeping track of patient records, medications, and treatments given. They were also used in automated library systems and in database systems such as the Chemical Abstracts system, where computer records now on file cover nearly all known chemical compounds (Rogers, 8). The trend during the 170s was, to some extent, away from extremely powerful, centralized computational centers and toward a broader range of applications for less-costly computer systems. Most continuous-process manufacturing, such as petroleum refining and electrical-power distribution systems, began using computers of relatively modest capability for controlling and regulating their activities. In the 160s the programming of applications problems was an obstacle to the self-sufficiency of moderate-sized on-site computer installations, but great advances in applications programming languages removed these obstacles. Applications languages became available for controlling a great range of manufacturing processes, for computer operation of machine tools, and for many other tasks (Osborne, 146). In 171 Marcian E. Hoff, Jr., an engineer at the Intel Corporation, invented the microprocessor and another stage in the development of the computer began (Shallis, 11). A new revolution in computer hardware was now well under way, involving miniaturization of computer-logic circuitry and of component manufacture by what are called large-scale integration techniques. In the 150s it was realized that scaling down the size of electronic digital computer circuits and parts would increase speed and efficiency and improve performance. However, at that time the manufacturing methods were not good enough to accomplish such a task. About 160 photoprinting of conductive circuit boards to eliminate wiring became highly developed. Then it became possible to build resistors and capacitors into the circuitry by photographic means (Rogers, 14). In the 170s entire assemblies, such as adders, shifting registers, and counters, became available on tiny chips of silicon. In the 180s very large scale integration (VLSI), in which hundreds of thousands of transistors are placed on a single chip, became increasingly common. Many companies, some new to the computer field, introduced in the 170s programmable minicomputers supplied with software packages. The size-reduction trend continued with the introduction of personal computers, which are programmable machines small enough and inexpensive enough to be purchased and used by individuals (Rogers, 15). One of the first of such machines was introduced in January 175. Popular Electronics magazine provided plans that would allow any electronics wizard to build his own small, programmable computer for about $80 (Rose, ). The computer was called the Altair 8800. Its programming involved pushing buttons and flipping switches on the front of the box. It didnt include a monitor or keyboard, and its applications were very limited (Jacobs, 5). Even though, many orders came in for it and several famous owners of computer and software manufacturing companies got their start in computing through the Altair. For example, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, founders of Apple Computer, built a much cheaper, yet more productive version of the Altair and turned their hobby into a business (Fluegelman, 16). After the introduction of the Altair 8800, the personal computer industry became a fierce battleground of competition. IBM had been the computer industry standard for well over a half-century. They held their position as the standard when they introduced their first personal computer, the IBM Model 60 in 175 (Chposky, 156). However, the newly formed Apple Computer company was releasing its own personal computer, the Apple II (The Apple I was the first computer designed by Jobs and Wozniak in Wozniaks garage, which was not produced on a wide scale). Software was needed to run the computers as well. Microsoft developed a Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) for the IBM computer while Apple developed its own software system (Rose, 7). Because Microsoft had now set the software standard for IBMs, every software manufacturer had to make their software compatible with Microsofts. This would lead to huge profits for Microsoft (Cringley, 16). The main goal of the computer manufacturers was to ma ke the computer as affordable as possible while incre asing speed, reliability, and capacity. Nearly every computer manufacturer accomplished this and computers popped up everywhere. Computers were in businesses keeping track of inventories. Computers were in colleges aiding students in research. Computers were in laboratories making complex calculations at high speeds for scientists and physicists. The computer had made its mark everywhere in society and built up a huge industry (Cringley, 174). The future is promising for the computer industry and its technology. The speed of processors is expected to double every year and a half in the coming years. As manufacturing techniques are further perfected the prices of computer systems are expected to steadily fall. However, since the microprocessor technology will be increasing, its higher costs will offset the drop in price of older processors. In other words, the price of a new computer will stay about the same from year to year, but technology will steadily increase (Zachary, 4) Since the end of World War II, the computer industry has grown from a standing start into one of the biggest and most profitable industries in the United States. It now comprises thousands of companies, making everything from multi-million dollar high-speed supercomputers to printout paper and floppy disks. It employs millions of people and generates tens of billions of dollars in sales each year (Malone, 1). Surely, the computer has impacted every aspect of peoples lives. It has affected the way people work and play. It has made everyones life easier by doing difficult work for people. The computer truly is one of the most incredible inventions in history. Works Cited Chposky, James. Blue Magic. New York Facts on File Publishing. 188. Cringley, Robert X. Accidental Empires. Reading, MA Addison Wesley Publishing, 1. Dolotta, T.A. Data Processing 140-185. New York John Wiley & Sons, 185. Fluegelman, Andrew.A New World, MacWorld. San Jose, Ca MacWorld Publishing, February, 184 (Premire Issue). Hall, Peter. Silicon Landscapes. Boston Allen & Irwin, 185 Gulliver, David. Silicon Valey and Beyond. Berkeley, Ca Berkeley Area Government Press, 181. Hazewindus, Nico. The U.S. Microelectronics Industry. New York Pergamon Press, 188. Jacobs, Christopher W.The Altair 8800, Popular Electronics. New York Popular Electronics Publishing, January 175. Malone, Michael S. The Big Scare The U.S. Coputer Industry. Garden City, NY Doubleday & Co., 185. Osborne, Adam. Hypergrowth. Berkeley, Ca Idthekkethan Publishing Company, 184. Rogers, Everett M. Silicon Valey Fever. New York Basic Books, Inc. Publishing, 184. Rose, Frank. West of Eden. New York Viking Publishing, 18. Shallis, Michael. The Silicon Idol. New York Shocken Books, 184. Soma, John T. The History of the Computer. Toronto Lexington Books, 176. Zachary, William. The Future of Computing, Byte. Boston Byte Publishing, August 14.

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Law of consideration

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It will be necessary to give special reference to the law of consideration in dealing with both cases so as to give a careful determination on whether Paul should pay the extra money to the contractors or the bonus to his staff.When identifying what consideration is, it will also be right to consider if the rules of consideration were met in this case so as to help in deciding whether Bookworm Ltd. should pay both parties the agreed extra amounts or bonuses. In consideration, a promise made by deed is binding, and a promise in a 'simple' contract, that is; not by deed, is binding if it is supported by consideration. It is however important to note that a promise not supported by consideration, is not binding. It is also important to note that consideration must be something of value in the eyes of the law, though it does not need to be adequate. Value is interpreted as economic value and not moral obligation, as can be referred to the case of Thomas V Thomas, whereby Mrs. Thomas' payment of £1 per year to her late husband's executors to live in the house for the rest of her life, was held by the court as sufficient consideration.We could apply to this case some of the rules of consideration that state that consideration must move from the promisee and that it must not be past. As promises to perform existing duties are considered insufficient consideration, that is, not consideration, it can be argued that Paul was not bound to pay his employees the bonus he had promised them as first of all, his employees had not been promised by him before they had transferred the books into the new warehouse that he will pay them a bonus. The promise to pay his staff the £50 bonus was made later on that night after he was so pleased at the speed at which they had shifted the books into the new warehouse. This can be considered as a 'gratuitous' act and not valid consideration as the promise was not made to the employees before they had commenced the work. This situation can be likened to the case of Re McArdle (151), whereby a certain woman had sued a family that had promised to reimburse her for the work that she had done on their house, but the family had failed to keep their promise and not paid her. The woman lost the case as she had not provided no consideration on the promise to pay since she had carried out the work before the promise was made and therefore was considered by the courts as past consideration. Furthermore, it can further be argued that these employees were already in the employ of Bookworm Ltd., and were therefore simply performing their 'legal' duty. The case of Stilk v Myrick (180) also comes into play as the workers had not done anymore than they were obliged to do by their contracts. There was no consideration for the additional wages (bonuses). In the situation of the Bookworm Ltd workers, there was no prior request or expectation of a bonus payment.To consider if Paul is supposed to pay Bricks & Mortar or not, we can reflect on the cases of Stilk V Myrick (180) and the Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls Ltd. In the former case, that is, Stilk v Myrick, the remaining crew members of a ship were not paid the additional wages promised to them as their case was not regarded as good consideration. In that particular scenario, two of the ship's crew that had been contracted for a voyage from London to the Baltic, deserted in Cronstad. The captain promised to divide up the deserters' wages if the remaining crew took the ship back to London shorthanded. On arrival the owners refused to pay and the case was held by the courts whereby it was considered that the remaining crew had not done any more than they were already obliged to do by their contracts. There was no consideration for the additional wages.However, in a controversial Court of Appeal decision of 10 in the case of Williams v Roffey Bros & Nicholls Ltd, it seemed to abolish the requirement that any variation to an existing contract needs to be supported by fresh consideration. The contractors were able to enforce a promise to pay extra if work was completed on time under an existing contract. They were said to have provided practical benefit to the defendants. In the case of Bookworm Ltd against Bricks & Mortar we could apply the same principle and mention that Bricks & Mortars' fresh promise to finish the work that they were contracted to do on time, conferred a 'practical benefit' on Bookworm Ltd which was consideration for Paul's promise to pay the extra money to have the job completed on time. Furthermore, Bricks & Mortar had not acted unconscionably, for example, by exercising fraud or duress upon Paul. This can further be supported in the case Currie v Misa (1875) which supports the fact that a valuable consideration, may consist either in some right, interest, profit or benefit accruing to one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss or responsibility given, suffered or undertaken by the other.We could also consider the case of Glasbrook Brothers Ltd v Glamorgan County council [15], whereby the courts held that the police were simply performing their legal duty, and therefore the public, who pay for the protection provided for by the police through rates and taxes, could not be called upon to make further payments for what was considered their right. However if a member of the public desires services of a special kind from the police, they (the police) may provide the necessary constables for that purpose in consideration of payment. The House of Lords ruled that Glasbrook was obliged to pay the Police because it had provided more protection than they reasonably thought necessary. Going back to our reference on the Williams v Roffey Bros case, it could be stated that the same situation applied to the Bookworm and Bricks & mortar scenario as according to the judgement formerly made by the Court of Appeal, it held that, where X makes a further promise to Y in return for Y's promise to perform his contractual obligations already owed to X, and as a result of Y's promise or performance, X obtains a practical benefit, Y provides good consideration for X's further promise.The facts, arguments and cases presented above, could therefore lead one to come up with the conclusion that in the case of Bricks & Mortar, Paul had an obligation to fulfil the payment by due reason of the fact that the fresh agreement superceded the original contract. In the case of his workers, the case could be ruled in his favour on the grounds that he made the promise to them regarding payment of the bonuses later on after they had done the work. It could however be argued that the workers exceeded the expected time to transfer the books into the new warehouse and therefore they did something extra than what was required of them, but the fact remains that they were under no pressure from Paul and neither had they previously been promised any bonuses then. Bibliography1. R Card and J James 00. Law for Accountancy Students, seventh edition, The Bath Press.. D. Keenan 000. Advanced Business Law, Eleventh Edition, Longman Pearson Education Ltd.. T Weir 000. A case book on Tort, Ninth Edition, Sweet and Marxwell London. Please note that this sample paper on law of consideration is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. 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Hemp feilds

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STALK FOR FABRIC, FUEL, PAPER & COMMERCIAL USE. Hemp is dried and broken down into two parts threadlike fibers and bits of hurd, or pulp. Each of these products has its own distinct applications SEEDS FOR OIL & FOOD Hemp seeds produce oil for cooking, lubrication, fuel, etc. The seed is a cholesterol-lowering source of full protein. Leaves and flowers are also edible. The long bark fiber is cleaned and spun into threads and yarn for rope or knit or woven into a variety of durable, high-quality textiles for clothing, canvas and fabrics of many types and textures. FOLIAGE FOR MEDICINE, FOOD & RELAXATION. Cannabis has important medical value for easing pain, relieving stress and treating illnesses from glaucoma to cancer to nausea to AIDS and beyond. Hemp flowers and leaves are smoked or eaten for many theraputic, religious and relaxational purposes. The inner core that remains is called hemp hurds, with cellulose for tree-free, dioxin-free paper; nontoxic paints and sealants; industrial fabrication materials construction materials; hemi-ceilulose for plastic, and much more! Hemp is the best sustainable source of plant pulp for biomass fuel to make charcoal, gas, methanol, gasoline or even produce electricity. ROOTED IN NATURE Even the hemp roots play an important role they anchor and aerate the soil to control erosion and mudslides. Hemp can save family farms, create jobs, reduce acid rain and chemical pollution, and reverse the greenhouse effect.So much evidence has accumulated that even the DEA admits that marijuana is not a gateway drug. Legalizing hemp/marijuana will reduce our hard drug related crimes significantly. Its time to end the folly of a fraudulent War on HEMP that has failed in every respect. Policy debates regarding marijuana-law reform invariably raise the issue of marijuana and driving. This is a valid concern. In fact, NORMLs own Principles of Responsible Cannabis Use invoke a no driving clause, stating Although cannabis is said by most experts to be safer than alcohol and many prescription drugs with motorists, responsible cannabis consumers never operate motor vehicles in an impaired condition.Nevertheless, concerns regarding doped driving should not be an impediment to marijuana-law reform. Alcohol is legal in America, yet every state maintains tough laws punishing those who choose to drive impaired by it. There is no reason why similar principles should not regulate cannabis consumption.

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Moreover, emerging scientific research indicates that cannabis actually has far less impact on the psychomotor skills needed for driving than alcohol does, and is seldom a causal factor in automobile accidents. The following documents provide a comprehensive overview of the scientific evidence regarding marijuanas impact on psychomotor skills and driving.Marijuanas therapeutic uses are well-documented in modern scientific literature. The studies indicate that marijuana provides symptomatic relief for a number of medical conditions, including nausea and vomiting, stimulating appetite, promoting weight gain, and diminishing intraocular pressure from glaucoma. There is also evidence that smoked marijuana and/or THC reduces muscle spasticity from spinal cord injuries and multiple sclerosis, and diminishes treMyth MaMyth Marijuana Causes Chromosome and Cell Damage rijuana toptopMyth Pot Causes High Blood PressureDamages the Immune System mors in multiple sclerosis patients. Patients and physicians have also reported that smoked marijuana provides relief from migraine headaches, depression, seizures, insomnia and chronic pain, among other conditions.In 17, a Congressionally created commission called the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, whose members were appointed by then-President Richard Nixon, completed one of the most comprehensive reviews ever undertaken regarding marijuana and public policy. Their report, Marihuana A Signal of Misunderstanding, proclaimed that from what is now known about the effects of marihuana, its use at the present level does not constitute a major threat to public health, and recommended Congress and state legislatures decriminalize the use and casual distribution of marijuana for personal use.Any discussion of marijuana should begin with the fact that there have been numerous official reports and studies, every one of which has concluded that marijuana poses no great risk to society and should not be criminalized. These include the National Academy of Sciences Analysis of Marijuana Policy(18); the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse (the Shafer Report) (17); the Canadian Governments Commission of Inquiry (Le Dain Report) (170); the British Advisory Committee on Drug Dependency (Wooton Report) (168); the La Guardia Report (144); the Panama Canal Zone Military Investigations (116-); and Britains monumental Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (18-4).It is sometimes claimed that there is new evidence showing marijuana is more harmful than was thought in the sixties. In fact, the most recent studies have tended to confirm marijuanas safety, refuting claims that it causes birth defects, brain damage, reduced testosterone, or increased drug abuse problems.The current consensus is well stated in the 0th annual report of the California Research Advisory Panel (10), which recommended that personal use and cultivation of marijuana be legalized An objective consideration of marijuana shows that it is responsible for less damage to society and the individual than are alcohol and cigarettes.Marijuana and SmokingA recent survey by the Kaiser Permanente Center found that daily marijuana-only smokers have a 1% higher rate of respiratory complaints than non-smokers.1 These findings were not surprising, since it has long been known that, aside from its psychoactive ingredients, marijuana smoke contains virtually the same toxic gases and carcinogenic tars as tobacco. Human studies have found that pot smokers suffer similar kinds of respiratory damage as tobacco smokers, putting them at greater risk of bronchitis, sore throat, respiratory inflammation and infections. Myth Pot Kills Brain Cells Government experts now admit that pot doesnt kill brain cells.1 This myth came from a handful of animal experiments in which structural changes (not actual cell death, as is often alleged) were observed in brain cells of animals exposed to high doses of pot. Many critics still cite the notorious monkey studies of Dr. Robert G. Heath, which purported to find brain damage in three monkeys that had been heavily dosed with cannabis. This work was never replicated and has since been discredited by a pair of better controlled, much larger monkey studies, one by Dr. William Slikker of the National Center for Toxicological Research and the other by Charles Rebert and Gordon Pryor of SRI International.4 Neither found any evidence of physical alteration in the brains of monkeys exposed to daily doses of pot for up to a year. Human studies of heavy users in Jamaica and Costa Rica found no evidence of abnormalities in brain physiology.5 Even though there is no evidence that pot causes permanent brain damage, users should be aware that persistent deficits in short-term memory have been noted in chronic, heavy marijuana smokers after 6 to 1 weeks of abstinence.6 It is worth noting that other drugs, including alcohol, are known to cause brain damage. There is no scientific evidence for the theory that marijuana is a gateway drug. The cannabis-using cultures in Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Latin America show no propensity for other drugs. The gateway theory took hold in the sixties, when marijuana became the leading new recreational drug. It was refuted by events in the eighties, when cocaine abuse exploded at the same time marijuana use declined. As we have seen, there is evidence that cannabis may substitute for alcohol and other hard drugs. A recent survey by Dr. Patricia Morgan of the University of California at Berekeley found that a significant number of pot smokers and dealers switched to methamphetamine ice when Hawaiis marijuana eradication program created a shortage of pot.1 Dr. Morgan noted a similar phenomenon in California, where cocaine use soared in the wake of the CAMP helicopter eradication campaign.The one way in which marijuana does lead to other drugs is through its illegality persons who deal in marijuana are likely to deal in other illicit drugs as well. Decriminalization The state has decriminalized marijuana to some degree. Typically, decriminalization means no prison time or criminal record for first-time possession of a small amount for personal consumption. The conduct is treated like a minor traffic violation.Medical marijuana This state has medical marijuana laws enacted. Modern research suggests that cannabis is a valuable aid in the treatment of a wide range of clinical applications. These include pain relief, nausea, spasticity, glaucoma, and movement disorders. Marijuana is also a powerful appetite stimulant and emerging research suggests that marijuanas medicinal properties may protect the body against some types of malignant tumors, and are neuroprotective. For more information see NORMLs Medical Marijuana section. TALKING POINT # Decriminalization does not lead to greater marijuana use. Government studies conclude that marijuana decriminalization has had virtually no effect on either marijuana use or beliefs and related attitudes about marijuana among American young people in those states that have enacted such a policy. Citizens who live under decriminalization laws consume marijuana at rates less than or comparable to those who live in regions where the possession of marijuana remains a criminal offense. Rates of hard drug use (illicit drugs other than marijuana) among emergency room patients are substantially higher in states that have not decriminalized marijuana use. Experts speculate that this is because the lack of decriminalization may encourage the greater use of drugs that are even more dangerous than marijuana. MYTHMARIJUANAS HARMS HAVE BEEN PROVED SCIENTIFICALLY. In the 160s and 170s, many people believed that marijuana was harmless. Today we know that marijuana is much more dangerous than previously believed. FACTIn 17, after reviewing the scientific evidence, the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse concluded that while marijuana was not entirely safe, its dangers had been grossly overstated. Since then, researchers have conducted thousands of studies of humans, animals, and cell cultures. None reveal any findings dramatically different from those described by the National Commission in 17. In 15, based on thirty years of scientific research editors of the British medical journal Lancet concluded that the smoking of cannabis, even long term, is not harmful to health.MYTHMARIJUANA HAS NO MEDICINAL VALUE. Safer, more effective drugs are available. They include a synthetic version of THC, marijuanas primary active ingredient, which is marketed in the United States under the name Marinol.FACTMarijuana has been shown to be effective in reducing the nausea induced by cancer chemotherapy, stimulating appetite in AIDS patients, and reducing intraocular pressure in people with glaucoma. There is also appreciable evidence that marijuana reduces muscle spasticity in patients with neurological disorders. A synthetic capsule is available by prescription, but it is not as effective as smoked marijuana for many patients. Pure THC may also produce more unpleasant psychoactive side effects than smoked marijuana. Many people use marijuana as a medicine today, despite its illegality. In doing so, they risk arrest and imprisonment.MYTHMARIJUANA IS HIGHLY ADDICTIVE. Long term marijuana users experience physical dependence and withdrawal, and often need professional drug treatment to break their marijuana habits.FACTMost people who smoke marijuana smoke it only occasionally. A small minority of Americans - less than 1 percent - smoke marijuana on a daily basis. An even smaller minority develop a dependence on marijuana. Some people who smoke marijuana heavily and frequently stop without difficulty. Others seek help from drug treatment professionals. Marijuana does not cause physical dependence. If people experience withdrawal symptoms at all, they are remarkably mild.MYTHMARIJUANA KILLS BRAIN CELLS. Used over time, marijuana permanently alters brain structure and function, causing memory loss, cognitive impairment, personality deterioration, and reduced productivity.FACTNone of the medical tests currently used to detect brain damage in humans have found harm from marijuana, even from long term high-dose use. An early study reported brain damage in rhesus monkeys after six months exposure to high concentrations of marijuana smoke. In a recent, more carefully conducted study, researchers found no evidence of brain abnormality in monkeys that were forced to inhale the equivalent of four to five marijuana cigarettes every day for a year. The claim that marijuana kills brain cells is based on a speculative report dating back a quarter of a century that has never been supported by any scientific study.MYTHMARIJUANA CAUSES AN AMOTIVATIONAL SYNDROME. Marijuana makes users passive, apathetic, and uninterested in the future. Students who use marijuana become underachievers and workers who use marijuana become unproductive.FACTFor twenty-five years, researchers have searched for a marijuana-induced amotivational syndrome and have failed to find it. People who are intoxicated constantly, regardless of the drug, are unlikely to be productive members of society. There is nothing about marijuana specifically that causes people to lose their drive and ambition. In laboratory studies, subjects given high doses of marijuana for several days or even several weeks exhibit no decrease in work motivation or productivity. Among working adults, marijuana users tend to earn higher wages than non-users. College students who use marijuana have the same grades as nonusers. Among high school students, heavy use is associated with school failure, but school failure usually comes first.MYTHMARIJUANA IMPAIRS MEMORY AND COGNITION. Under the influence of marijuana, people are unable to think rationally and intelligently. Chronic marijuana use causes permanent mental impairment.FACTMarijuana produces immediate, temporary changes in thoughts, perceptions, and information processing. The cognitive process most clearly affected by marijuana is short-term memory. In laboratory studies, subjects under the influence of marijuana have no trouble remembering things they learned previously. However, they display diminished capacity to learn and recall new information. This diminishment only lasts for the duration of the intoxication. There is no convincing evidence that heavy long-term marijuana use permanently impairs memory or other cognitive functions.MYTHMARIJUANA CAUSES CRIME. Marijuana users commit more property offenses than nonusers. Under the influence of marijuana, people become irrational, aggressive, and violent.FACTEvery serious scholar and government commission examining the relationship between marijuana use and crime has reached the same conclusion marijuana does not cause crime. The vast majority of marijuana users do not commit crimes other than the crime of possessing marijuana. Among marijuana users who do commit crimes, marijuana plays no causal role. Almost all human and animal studies show that marijuana decreases rather than increases aggression.MYTHMARIJUANA IS MORE DAMAGING TO THE LUNGS THAN TOBACCO. Marijuana smokers are at a high risk of developing lung cancer, bronchitis, and emphysema.FACTModerate smoking of marijuana appears to pose minimal danger to the lungs. Like tobacco smoke, marijuana smoke contains a number of irritants and carcinogens. But marijuana users typically smoke much less often than tobacco smokers, and over time, inhale much less smoke. As a result, the risk of serious lung damage should be lower in marijuana smokers. There have been no reports of lung cancer related solely to marijuana. However, because researchers have found precancerous changes in cells taken from the lungs of heavy marijuana smokers, the possibility of lung cancer from marijuana cannot be ruled out. Unlike heavy tobacco smokers, heavy marijuana smokers exhibit no obstruction of the lungs small airway. That indicates that people will not develop emphysema from smoking marijuana.MYTHMARIJUANA USE IS A MAJOR CAUSE OF HIGHWAY ACCIDENTS. Like alcohol, marijuana impairs psychomotor function and decreases driving ability. If marijuana use increases, an increase in of traffic fatalities is inevitable.FACTThere is no compelling evidence that marijuana contributes substantially to traffic accidents and fatalities. At some doses, marijuana affects perception and psychomotor performances- changes which could impair driving ability. However, in driving studies, marijuana produces little or no car-handling impairment- consistently less than produced by low moderate doses of alcohol and many legal medications. In contrast to alcohol, which tends to increase risky driving practices, marijuana tends to make subjects more cautious. Surveys of fatally injured drivers show that when THC is detected in the blood, alcohol is almost always detected as well. For some individuals, marijuana may play a role in bad driving. The overall rate of highway accidents appears not to be significantly affected by marijuanas widespread use in society.

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Closed Captioning

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Just as a caption in a book is the text under a picture, captions on video are text located somewhere on the picture. Since there is no way for a television to put text outside the area of the picture tube, captions do end up covering a portion of the picture (there are non-broadcast applications where this can be done). CLOSED captions are captions that are hidden in the video signal, invisible without a special decoder. The place they are hidden is called line 1 of the vertical blanking interval (VBI). OPEN captions are captions that have been decoded, so they have become an integral part of the television picture, like subtitles in a movie. In other words, open captions cannot be turned off. The term open captions is also used to refer to subtitles created with a character generator.How can I see closed captions on my television?There are two ways to accomplish this by using an external decoder, or by using a television with a decoder built in. External decoders are available from several sources, and a law in the United States called the Television Decoder Circuitry Act of 10 mandates that since July 1, all televisions manufactured for sale in the U.S. must contain a built-in caption decoder if the picture tube is 1 or larger. All decoders in North America are Line 1 decoders, named for the place where the captions are encoded. Can I get captions with cable TV?Absolutely. Since the caption data is hidden in the picture, it will reach you no matter how the TV signal gets to your set. There are problems from time-to-time with delivery of captions on the lower-budget cable systems, however. Much of this comes from the use of equipment that either cleans up or compresses the television signal, losing the VBI (where the captions are carried) when it is done.Cable TV companies are, however, required by the FCC to maintain captioning information. If you see a show through cable that you know to have captions, and the captions arent coming through for you, contact the cable TV company and remind them of this!Can I get captions from a satellite dish?Yes. Just like with cable TV, the caption data is hidden in the picture, it will reach you no matter how the TV signal gets to your set. This is true both of the big dishes used for traditional analog satellite broadcasts, and the DSS (Digital Satellite Service) dishes used by companies like USSB and DirecTV. What are CC1 and CC?Decoders were originally designed to allow for captioning in more than one language, although we dont see much of it (60 Minutes, which is captioned in English and Spanish, is an exception). Line 1, where the captions are carried, is split into two fields. Field one carries two caption channels, CC1 and CC. Field two carries the other two, CC and CC4. Who do I talk to if I want my favorite show to be captioned?If your favorite show doesnt have captions, and youd like it to, your first step is to find out who produces it. If it is a national show, it will be more effective to contact the network and/or the production company than to contact your local television station, although it never hurts to do both. In either case, ask for the public relations department first. If they cant take care of you, they can always direct you to someone who can. If you are attempting to start a large-scale lobbying effort to get captions on a show, make sure you have facts and figures before you contact the station. Be prepared to tell them how many deaf and hard-of-hearing viewers there are in the area, which of their advertisers have captioning, and what their competitors are doing in that time slot. See if there are any applicable laws mandating captioning. You can even track down captioning firms and provide the station with their names and phone numbers (make sure to provide more than one, or it will look like the captioning firm is orchestrating your efforts). Petitions are highly effective as well. How many people have televisions with caption decoders? As of July 1, when the Television Decoder Circuitry Act took effect, roughly 500,000 standalone decoders had been sold (almost all from NCI), and roughly 1,000,000 televisions with caption decoders (mostly from Zenith). Since that date, roughly 0,000,000 televisions per year are being sold with caption decoders in them. That would indicate that there are close to 150,000,000 TVs with decoders in North America (as of early 001). That number, of course, doesnt take replacement televisions into account, so the actual number is probably lower.The Caption Center predicted that every home in the United States would have a caption-capable television set by the year 000. Were certainly not there yet, but were mighty close.Where do captions come from?Captions can be placed on a video signal in one of two ways Online (live) or Offline (post-production). Online captioning is done as an event occurs. Examples of online captioning are television news shows, live seminars, and sports events. Online captions can be done from a script, or actually created in real-time (see the next question). Offline captioning is done after the fact, in a studio. Examples of offline captioning include television game shows, videotapes of movies, and corporate videotapes (e.g., training videos). The text of the captions is created on a computer, and synchronized to the video using time codes. They are then transferred to the videotape before it is broadcast or distributed. Why are there different icons to denote captioned programs? You will often see an icon in the corner of the screen at the beginning of a captioned program, but not all shows use the same one for trademark reasons. The CC (with or without the rounded rectangle surrounding it) is a generic icon, which can be used by any company. Camera-ready artwork for this icon is available from the Caption Center and from VITAC. This icon, which looks like a comic strip's speech balloon (a rounded rectangle with a small "tail" protruding below) is a registered mark of the National Captioning Institute (NCI), and is only used for productions that are captioned by NCI. Other icons are used for captioning in other countries and other languages as well. There is, for example, a new icon being used for Spanish-language captioning in Puerto Rico. What does the ADA say about captioning? The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifically mandates that all government-funded public service announcements must be captioned. That is about the end of the specific mention of captioning. There are a lot of implied requirements, however, which are yet to be tested in court, despite the fact that the ADA was enacted in 1. There is some question regarding captioning of things like City Council meetings.When will all U.S. television programming have to be captioned?All new (aired for the first time on or after 1/1/18) video programming must be captioned by 1/1/006. This is a phase-in, requiring 5% of programming by 1/1/000, 50% by 1/1/00, and 75% by 1/1/004. For old programming (aired for the first time before 1/1/18), 0% must be captioned by 1/1/00, and 75% by 1/1/008. With Spanish-language programming, the deadline is 010 for new programming and 01 for old programming. Why do captions sometimes jump around the screen?Caption placement is a tricky part of captioning. The location of the captions can indicate who is speaking, and they also move around to keep from covering important information. Why is captioning almost always in uppercase (capitals)?

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Numerous studies have shown that mixed-case text is easier to read than all uppercase. Virtually all captioning in North America is done in uppercase only, however, because the resolution of the caption decoders caused some pretty ugly lowercase letters. For example, there are no descenders available for the lowercase i, j, g, q, and y. This means that these letters are pushed up on the line relative to the other letters, making it harder to read. Mixed-case text is often used to indicate whispering, and is also often used for text that needs to be set apart, such as comments by an off-screen announcer (voice-over), or sound effects. Why do the captions not always match the audio?There are several possible reasons for captions that dont match the audio portion of a program Intentional editing Childrens programs such as Sesame Street or Barney target audiences that dont have well-developed reading skills. The captions are edited down to a reading level that these audiences should be able to follow (usually about 60 words per minute). There are captioning companies that edit other programs for reading speed, which has sparked many interesting debates. Changes to the program When operating under a tight schedule, a program may go to the captioner on videotape before all of the final editing is complete. The dialog may be changed and re-dubbed after the captioning is done. This can lead to captions for dialog that doesnt match, or even doesnt exist in the final tape. Why are there sometimes typos in the captions?Like anything done by a human being, real-time captioning often produces the equivalent of typos. Unlike normal typing, however, steno-captioners can write entire words or phrases with a single hand motion (known as a stroke). A mis-stroke, therefore, wont be an incorrect or missing letter, but can be entirely different words or phrases. A good real-time captioner can work to an accuracy level of better than %, but that does still lead to a couple of mis-strokes per minute. What are those funny white squares I sometimes see?When there are problems with reception, the caption decoder may not be able to retrieve the captions correctly from the VBI of the television picture. That can cause garbled or dropped letters. If the decoder receives something that it interprets as invalid, it will often display it as a solid white square (blob). There is a backspace command on newer decoders that displays on some older decoders as a white square as well. How are real-time captions generated? Real-time captions are performed by steno-captioners, who are court reporters with special training. They use a special keyboard (called a steno keyboard or shorthand machine) to write what they hear as they hear it. Unlike a traditional QWERTY keyboard, a steno keyboard allows more than one key to be pressed at a time. The basic concept behind machine shorthand is phonetic, where combinations of keys represent sounds, but the actual theory used is much more complex than straight phonics. Steno-captioners are capable of writing at speeds of up to 50 words per minute, or even faster in short bursts. The steno then goes into a computer system, where it is translated into text and commands. The captioning software on the computer formats that stream of text into captions, and sends it to a caption encoder. This can be done either directly, or over the telephone using modems. Can captioners replace sign interpreters at live events?Certainly not. Captioners and sign interpreters address two different groups of people. Prelingually deaf (or culturally Deaf) people have sign language (usually ASL) as their first language. English came later. They will be much more comfortable with an interpreter, and their comprehension level will be higher. For someone accustomed to ASL, English is quite limited in its expression, and written English is very dry. Additionally, a Deaf person who has spent most of their life communicating in ASL may not have developed the reading speed necessary to follow captions in real-time. Postlingually deaf people (or late-deafened adults) learned English before they learned to sign, if they learned to sign at all. For these people, captions will provide a far greater comprehension level. Of the deaf and hard of hearing population in the United States, roughly 10% actually know sign language. Captions benefit the rest. Each method of communication has its strengths. For example, in a speech with heavy use of proper names and specialty terminology, it may be easier to follow captions than a frantically finger spelling sign interpreter. The maximum flow of information and comprehension will occur when sign interpreters and captioners work together at the event. What skills do I need for real-time captioning?You need to be able to write real-time at speeds well in excess of 5 words per minute, with a total error rate (TER) of under 1.5% to get started. You should have extensive training, on your own and through seminars, to be able to write steno in ways that will differentiate homophones, synonyms, and unfamiliar words, at high speeds and with precision. The National Court Reporters Association CRR (Certified Real-time Reporter) exam is a good start to see if you have the necessary speed and accuracy, even though it tests to a 4.0% TER rather than a 1.5%. Vocabulary is critical. You must have a well-developed court reporting dictionary, containing all of the specialty terminology for whatever you will be captioning, plus general terms that might come up. Focus heavily on geopolitical terminology. The following is an abbreviated (yes, abbreviated) copy of what should be in an American news captioners dictionary, courtesy of Patty White and Kevin Daniel U.S. Presidents (past and present and potential), First Ladies, Cabinet Members, U.S. Senate, U.S. House of Representatives, National figures (government, religious, entertainment, criminal...), All the countries in the world and their capitals, All the states in the U.S. and their capitals, All other major U.S. cities and not so major U.S. Cities, Geographical information, like mountain ranges, mountain peaks, oceans, rivers, lakes, local creeks, Meteorological terms, weather terms. World leaders, including United Nations leaders, World history terminology, like Tet Offensive, Bolsheviks, Chairman Mao, Major wars, domestic and international, Terms related to world organizations, like NATO, OPEC, etc., Nationalities, and the languages of foreign nations, Supreme Court Justices and important SCOTUS decisions, Military leaders, Joint Chiefs of Staff, military bases, weapons of war, like A-10 tank killers, F-15s, AWACS, Tomahawk missiles, Scud, etc., National Parks, Colleges and Universities and their team names, Local stuff for the area you plan to caption in, landmarks, hospitals, junior colleges, prominent people, etc., All the professional sports teams and their nicknames, players and coaches, Sports terminology, awards, and organizations, both amateur and professional, Makes and models of automobiles, Major businesses, brand names, stock terms and trading organizations, Currencies and major banks around the world, All the colors and their shades and hues, Dog and cat breeds, Foods and their measurements and spices that go in them, Holidays, Christian, Jewish and all other faiths, Special events, like Kwanzaa, Cinco de Mayo, etc., Religious structures, like mosque, temple, etc., Books of the Bible and religions around the world, Basic chemicals, Drug names and manufacturers, both legal and illegal, Common first and last names, World literature, philosophy and religious terms, like Aesop, orthodox, Buddhism, Eucharist, the Brothers Grimm, etc., Political terms, like Glasnost, apartheid, anarchy, propaganda, caucus, expatriate, Kremlin, Parliament, etc., Computer terms, Idioms, like adieu, aloha, de rigueur, fait accompli, modus operandi, etc. How does a real-time captioner handle obscenities?Another issue facing the captioner is curse words. As a general rule of thumb, if the word is in the sound track, it should be in the captions as well. If the producer chooses to bleep the sound track, then bleep the captions, too. Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing viewers should get the same content as hearing viewers.These obscene words must be in the dictionary, because they will come up sooner or later, but they must be carefully defined so that it is virtually impossible to stroke one by accident. One common approach used by a number of captioners is to place the words in the dictionary with an asterisk in the middle of the steno stroke. Beware, though if you remove the word from the dictionary entirely, todays sophisticated phonetic translation systems may produce it anyway if you write it by accident. Put the phonetic way of writing the word in your dictionary as a NULL translation so that if you hit it by accident nothing comes out.Youll need a bleep stroke as well, for when the audio is actually censored.How do I get started in the real-time captioning business?The best way to get started is just like any other business Start calling the leading companies in the field (and the local companies) and see whos hiring. You can also start by working with local chapters of organizations like the Association of Late-Deafened Adults (ALDA), Self-Help for Hard of Hearing People (SHHH), the National Association for the Deaf (NAD), the Alexander Graham Bell Society, and others that may need your services. They pay wont be as good, but the satisfaction level is high. Sometimes the major companies hire people with little or no training under internships or on-the-job-training programs, but theres no substitute for having a little bit of experience behind you. Practice on the kind of material you want to caption, and offer to demonstrate your skills. If you are planning to do work for the television news industry, get to know the business and the terminology before you approach anybody. Make sure your equipment is in place and that you know how to use it. Certification is not required, but is a good thing to have.

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"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS)

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"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS) is a mysterious atypical pneumonia disease due to one or more viruses that started in Southeast Asia in February 00. (1) SARS appears to be a respiratory disease, spread by a corona virus. () It is believed that the virus jumped from animals to humans in southern China. SARS has also affected many other countries including North America and parts of Europe. (1) Many people have already died from SARS. As of April 1, 00, there have been more than 4,000 cases of SARS and 17 deaths reported worldwide. The "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention" (CDC) and the "World Health Organization" (WHO) are taking the matters into their own investigations. () The symptoms of SARS begins with a slight fever greater than 100.4°F and my include headache, shortness of breath, low blood oxygen level and sore throat. Other possible symptoms include loss of appetite, confusion, rash, and diarrhea. After two to seven days, SARS patients may develop a dry cough and have trouble breathing. Symptoms of SARS, is less severe towards younger teens and children. They appear to suffer milder symptoms than adults and older teenagers and they may also be less infectious to other people. (1) In a study conducted by Professor Tai Fai Fok of the Department of Pediatrics at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Fok studied the first ten children who received treatment for SARS during the early phase of the epidemic there. The young teens, age's betweens 1-16, had symptoms similar to the adult cases, with muscle aches, headaches, chills, and respiratory distress. Cases with the children ages range between 18 months and seven years of age suffered the typical SARS symptoms of fever, coughs and runny nose. () SARS is very contagious disease that spreads from one person to another, like a common cold. Most SARS cases have involved family members or people that are caring for the patient that are carrying the disease, or have had direct contact with infectious materials. A potential way in which SARS can be spread, include touching the skin of other people or objects that are contaminated with infectious droplets and then touching one's eyes, nose, or mouth. This can happen when someone who is sick with SARS coughs or sneezes onto themselves, other people, or nearby surfaces. It is also possible that SARS can be spread more broadly through the air or by other ways that are currently not known. (4) There is also information concerning that SARS may remain on hands and surfaces for several hours. Recommendations by the "Food and Drug Administration" (FDA) states that strict hand-hygiene be enforced among food handlers and within the food processing industry.(8) Also, as with any contagious disease, proper hand washing is an important step everyone can take to reduce the spread of sickness. Wash your hands often with soap and hot water, or an alcohol-based hand sanitizer if water is not available after using the restroom and after sneezing or coughing. In addition, food workers should not handle ready-to-eat foods, such as sandwiches, vegetables and cut fruits, with bare hands, but should use gloves or utensils for an extra level of protection. (8)

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"Public Health Officials" (PHO) have created many strategies to contain the spread of SARS. (5) The two main strategies are isolation and quarantine. To control exposure to infected or potentially infected individuals both are common practices in public places. Isolation and quarantine may be undertaken voluntarily or forced by public health authorities. The two strategies differ in that isolation applies to people who are known to have a disease and quarantine applies to those who have been exposed to a disease, but who may or may not become infected.(1) So far, only one country has contained SARS. On April 8, 00, the WHO declared Vietnam the first country to contain a SARS outbreak within its borders. The WHO officially removed Vietnam from its list of countries affected by SARS after 0 consecutive days passed without a new reported case of the mysterious disease. At the peak of Vietnams SARS outbreak, more than 6 cases of SARS were reported, including five deaths. () Most of the U.S. cases of SARS have occurred among travelers returning to the United States from other parts of the world affected by SARS. There have been very few cases as a result of spread due to close contacts such as family members and health care workers. As of May 7, a total of 8 SARS cases in the United States have been reported from 8 states, although no SARS-related deaths have been reported in the United States. (6) SARS has affected many people and has also affected the global economy as well. For instance, it has made a huge impact on air travel, hotel industries, and many foreign businesses. The SARS outbreak has had a greater impact on tourism in countries like Singapore, Taiwan, Canada, and China. The CDC has been working closely with WHO and other partners to investigate cases of SARS in these countries. (4) The specific diagnose and evaluation for suspected SARS patients should include chest radiograph, pulse oximetry, blood cultures, sputum Grams stain and culture, testing for viral respiratory pathogens, notably influenza A and B, and respiratory syncytial virus. China says antibody offers a way to diagnose SARS. China has received encouraging results from a potential test for SARS that uses antibodies to diagnose the disease. The test looks for an antibody known as IgG, which the body produces in response to the virus that causes SARS. (10) Not much information is currently available on treatment for SARS. The WHO states that a cure may take some time. People with suspected SARS will be treated with medications that are effective against the diseases that cause similar symptoms. SARS can also be prevented by not traveling to places where there are known cases. (4)Also, prevent close contact with someone who is known or suspected to have SARS. (8) Due to the new nature of the disease, there is no vaccination to protect people from SARS. One of the major problems with SARS is that so much remains unknown. An important fact to remember is that all harmful viruses thrive in an acidic and low oxygen environment. Viruses also thrive in a body that has a weakened immune system, one that is dehydrated, malnourished and toxic, so be prepared for SARS and keep the immune system healthy.(7) 1. http//www.cdc.gov/ncidod/sars/. http//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/severeacuterespiratorysyndrome.html . http//health.discovery.com/centers/allergyasthma/respiratory/SARS.html4. http//www.hc-sc.gc.ca/pphb-dgspsp/sars-sras/index.html5. http//www.cbc.ca/news/background/sars/6. http//www.phls.org.uk/topics_az/SARS/public_page.htm7. http//www.slu.edu/colleges/sph/csbei/emerginginfections/sars/quick.htm8. http//www.fda.gov/oc/opacom/hottopics/sars/. http//news.bbc.co.uk//hi/health/841.stm10. http//www.who.int/csr/sars/diagnostictests/en/ Please note that this sample paper on "Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS) is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on "Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS), we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on "Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS) will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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