Closed Captioning

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Just as a caption in a book is the text under a picture, captions on video are text located somewhere on the picture. Since there is no way for a television to put text outside the area of the picture tube, captions do end up covering a portion of the picture (there are non-broadcast applications where this can be done). CLOSED captions are captions that are hidden in the video signal, invisible without a special decoder. The place they are hidden is called line 1 of the vertical blanking interval (VBI). OPEN captions are captions that have been decoded, so they have become an integral part of the television picture, like subtitles in a movie. In other words, open captions cannot be turned off. The term open captions is also used to refer to subtitles created with a character generator.How can I see closed captions on my television?There are two ways to accomplish this by using an external decoder, or by using a television with a decoder built in. External decoders are available from several sources, and a law in the United States called the Television Decoder Circuitry Act of 10 mandates that since July 1, all televisions manufactured for sale in the U.S. must contain a built-in caption decoder if the picture tube is 1 or larger. All decoders in North America are Line 1 decoders, named for the place where the captions are encoded. Can I get captions with cable TV?Absolutely. Since the caption data is hidden in the picture, it will reach you no matter how the TV signal gets to your set. There are problems from time-to-time with delivery of captions on the lower-budget cable systems, however. Much of this comes from the use of equipment that either cleans up or compresses the television signal, losing the VBI (where the captions are carried) when it is done.Cable TV companies are, however, required by the FCC to maintain captioning information. If you see a show through cable that you know to have captions, and the captions arent coming through for you, contact the cable TV company and remind them of this!Can I get captions from a satellite dish?Yes. Just like with cable TV, the caption data is hidden in the picture, it will reach you no matter how the TV signal gets to your set. This is true both of the big dishes used for traditional analog satellite broadcasts, and the DSS (Digital Satellite Service) dishes used by companies like USSB and DirecTV. What are CC1 and CC?Decoders were originally designed to allow for captioning in more than one language, although we dont see much of it (60 Minutes, which is captioned in English and Spanish, is an exception). Line 1, where the captions are carried, is split into two fields. Field one carries two caption channels, CC1 and CC. Field two carries the other two, CC and CC4. Who do I talk to if I want my favorite show to be captioned?If your favorite show doesnt have captions, and youd like it to, your first step is to find out who produces it. If it is a national show, it will be more effective to contact the network and/or the production company than to contact your local television station, although it never hurts to do both. In either case, ask for the public relations department first. If they cant take care of you, they can always direct you to someone who can. If you are attempting to start a large-scale lobbying effort to get captions on a show, make sure you have facts and figures before you contact the station. Be prepared to tell them how many deaf and hard-of-hearing viewers there are in the area, which of their advertisers have captioning, and what their competitors are doing in that time slot. See if there are any applicable laws mandating captioning. You can even track down captioning firms and provide the station with their names and phone numbers (make sure to provide more than one, or it will look like the captioning firm is orchestrating your efforts). Petitions are highly effective as well. How many people have televisions with caption decoders? As of July 1, when the Television Decoder Circuitry Act took effect, roughly 500,000 standalone decoders had been sold (almost all from NCI), and roughly 1,000,000 televisions with caption decoders (mostly from Zenith). Since that date, roughly 0,000,000 televisions per year are being sold with caption decoders in them. That would indicate that there are close to 150,000,000 TVs with decoders in North America (as of early 001). That number, of course, doesnt take replacement televisions into account, so the actual number is probably lower.The Caption Center predicted that every home in the United States would have a caption-capable television set by the year 000. Were certainly not there yet, but were mighty close.Where do captions come from?Captions can be placed on a video signal in one of two ways Online (live) or Offline (post-production). Online captioning is done as an event occurs. Examples of online captioning are television news shows, live seminars, and sports events. Online captions can be done from a script, or actually created in real-time (see the next question). Offline captioning is done after the fact, in a studio. Examples of offline captioning include television game shows, videotapes of movies, and corporate videotapes (e.g., training videos). The text of the captions is created on a computer, and synchronized to the video using time codes. They are then transferred to the videotape before it is broadcast or distributed. Why are there different icons to denote captioned programs? You will often see an icon in the corner of the screen at the beginning of a captioned program, but not all shows use the same one for trademark reasons. The CC (with or without the rounded rectangle surrounding it) is a generic icon, which can be used by any company. Camera-ready artwork for this icon is available from the Caption Center and from VITAC. This icon, which looks like a comic strip's speech balloon (a rounded rectangle with a small "tail" protruding below) is a registered mark of the National Captioning Institute (NCI), and is only used for productions that are captioned by NCI. Other icons are used for captioning in other countries and other languages as well. There is, for example, a new icon being used for Spanish-language captioning in Puerto Rico. What does the ADA say about captioning? The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifically mandates that all government-funded public service announcements must be captioned. That is about the end of the specific mention of captioning. There are a lot of implied requirements, however, which are yet to be tested in court, despite the fact that the ADA was enacted in 1. There is some question regarding captioning of things like City Council meetings.When will all U.S. television programming have to be captioned?All new (aired for the first time on or after 1/1/18) video programming must be captioned by 1/1/006. This is a phase-in, requiring 5% of programming by 1/1/000, 50% by 1/1/00, and 75% by 1/1/004. For old programming (aired for the first time before 1/1/18), 0% must be captioned by 1/1/00, and 75% by 1/1/008. With Spanish-language programming, the deadline is 010 for new programming and 01 for old programming. Why do captions sometimes jump around the screen?Caption placement is a tricky part of captioning. The location of the captions can indicate who is speaking, and they also move around to keep from covering important information. Why is captioning almost always in uppercase (capitals)?

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Numerous studies have shown that mixed-case text is easier to read than all uppercase. Virtually all captioning in North America is done in uppercase only, however, because the resolution of the caption decoders caused some pretty ugly lowercase letters. For example, there are no descenders available for the lowercase i, j, g, q, and y. This means that these letters are pushed up on the line relative to the other letters, making it harder to read. Mixed-case text is often used to indicate whispering, and is also often used for text that needs to be set apart, such as comments by an off-screen announcer (voice-over), or sound effects. Why do the captions not always match the audio?There are several possible reasons for captions that dont match the audio portion of a program Intentional editing Childrens programs such as Sesame Street or Barney target audiences that dont have well-developed reading skills. The captions are edited down to a reading level that these audiences should be able to follow (usually about 60 words per minute). There are captioning companies that edit other programs for reading speed, which has sparked many interesting debates. Changes to the program When operating under a tight schedule, a program may go to the captioner on videotape before all of the final editing is complete. The dialog may be changed and re-dubbed after the captioning is done. This can lead to captions for dialog that doesnt match, or even doesnt exist in the final tape. Why are there sometimes typos in the captions?Like anything done by a human being, real-time captioning often produces the equivalent of typos. Unlike normal typing, however, steno-captioners can write entire words or phrases with a single hand motion (known as a stroke). A mis-stroke, therefore, wont be an incorrect or missing letter, but can be entirely different words or phrases. A good real-time captioner can work to an accuracy level of better than %, but that does still lead to a couple of mis-strokes per minute. What are those funny white squares I sometimes see?When there are problems with reception, the caption decoder may not be able to retrieve the captions correctly from the VBI of the television picture. That can cause garbled or dropped letters. If the decoder receives something that it interprets as invalid, it will often display it as a solid white square (blob). There is a backspace command on newer decoders that displays on some older decoders as a white square as well. How are real-time captions generated? Real-time captions are performed by steno-captioners, who are court reporters with special training. They use a special keyboard (called a steno keyboard or shorthand machine) to write what they hear as they hear it. Unlike a traditional QWERTY keyboard, a steno keyboard allows more than one key to be pressed at a time. The basic concept behind machine shorthand is phonetic, where combinations of keys represent sounds, but the actual theory used is much more complex than straight phonics. Steno-captioners are capable of writing at speeds of up to 50 words per minute, or even faster in short bursts. The steno then goes into a computer system, where it is translated into text and commands. The captioning software on the computer formats that stream of text into captions, and sends it to a caption encoder. This can be done either directly, or over the telephone using modems. Can captioners replace sign interpreters at live events?Certainly not. Captioners and sign interpreters address two different groups of people. Prelingually deaf (or culturally Deaf) people have sign language (usually ASL) as their first language. English came later. They will be much more comfortable with an interpreter, and their comprehension level will be higher. For someone accustomed to ASL, English is quite limited in its expression, and written English is very dry. Additionally, a Deaf person who has spent most of their life communicating in ASL may not have developed the reading speed necessary to follow captions in real-time. Postlingually deaf people (or late-deafened adults) learned English before they learned to sign, if they learned to sign at all. For these people, captions will provide a far greater comprehension level. Of the deaf and hard of hearing population in the United States, roughly 10% actually know sign language. Captions benefit the rest. Each method of communication has its strengths. For example, in a speech with heavy use of proper names and specialty terminology, it may be easier to follow captions than a frantically finger spelling sign interpreter. The maximum flow of information and comprehension will occur when sign interpreters and captioners work together at the event. What skills do I need for real-time captioning?You need to be able to write real-time at speeds well in excess of 5 words per minute, with a total error rate (TER) of under 1.5% to get started. You should have extensive training, on your own and through seminars, to be able to write steno in ways that will differentiate homophones, synonyms, and unfamiliar words, at high speeds and with precision. The National Court Reporters Association CRR (Certified Real-time Reporter) exam is a good start to see if you have the necessary speed and accuracy, even though it tests to a 4.0% TER rather than a 1.5%. Vocabulary is critical. You must have a well-developed court reporting dictionary, containing all of the specialty terminology for whatever you will be captioning, plus general terms that might come up. Focus heavily on geopolitical terminology. The following is an abbreviated (yes, abbreviated) copy of what should be in an American news captioners dictionary, courtesy of Patty White and Kevin Daniel U.S. Presidents (past and present and potential), First Ladies, Cabinet Members, U.S. Senate, U.S. House of Representatives, National figures (government, religious, entertainment, criminal...), All the countries in the world and their capitals, All the states in the U.S. and their capitals, All other major U.S. cities and not so major U.S. Cities, Geographical information, like mountain ranges, mountain peaks, oceans, rivers, lakes, local creeks, Meteorological terms, weather terms. World leaders, including United Nations leaders, World history terminology, like Tet Offensive, Bolsheviks, Chairman Mao, Major wars, domestic and international, Terms related to world organizations, like NATO, OPEC, etc., Nationalities, and the languages of foreign nations, Supreme Court Justices and important SCOTUS decisions, Military leaders, Joint Chiefs of Staff, military bases, weapons of war, like A-10 tank killers, F-15s, AWACS, Tomahawk missiles, Scud, etc., National Parks, Colleges and Universities and their team names, Local stuff for the area you plan to caption in, landmarks, hospitals, junior colleges, prominent people, etc., All the professional sports teams and their nicknames, players and coaches, Sports terminology, awards, and organizations, both amateur and professional, Makes and models of automobiles, Major businesses, brand names, stock terms and trading organizations, Currencies and major banks around the world, All the colors and their shades and hues, Dog and cat breeds, Foods and their measurements and spices that go in them, Holidays, Christian, Jewish and all other faiths, Special events, like Kwanzaa, Cinco de Mayo, etc., Religious structures, like mosque, temple, etc., Books of the Bible and religions around the world, Basic chemicals, Drug names and manufacturers, both legal and illegal, Common first and last names, World literature, philosophy and religious terms, like Aesop, orthodox, Buddhism, Eucharist, the Brothers Grimm, etc., Political terms, like Glasnost, apartheid, anarchy, propaganda, caucus, expatriate, Kremlin, Parliament, etc., Computer terms, Idioms, like adieu, aloha, de rigueur, fait accompli, modus operandi, etc. How does a real-time captioner handle obscenities?Another issue facing the captioner is curse words. As a general rule of thumb, if the word is in the sound track, it should be in the captions as well. If the producer chooses to bleep the sound track, then bleep the captions, too. Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing viewers should get the same content as hearing viewers.These obscene words must be in the dictionary, because they will come up sooner or later, but they must be carefully defined so that it is virtually impossible to stroke one by accident. One common approach used by a number of captioners is to place the words in the dictionary with an asterisk in the middle of the steno stroke. Beware, though if you remove the word from the dictionary entirely, todays sophisticated phonetic translation systems may produce it anyway if you write it by accident. Put the phonetic way of writing the word in your dictionary as a NULL translation so that if you hit it by accident nothing comes out.Youll need a bleep stroke as well, for when the audio is actually censored.How do I get started in the real-time captioning business?The best way to get started is just like any other business Start calling the leading companies in the field (and the local companies) and see whos hiring. You can also start by working with local chapters of organizations like the Association of Late-Deafened Adults (ALDA), Self-Help for Hard of Hearing People (SHHH), the National Association for the Deaf (NAD), the Alexander Graham Bell Society, and others that may need your services. They pay wont be as good, but the satisfaction level is high. Sometimes the major companies hire people with little or no training under internships or on-the-job-training programs, but theres no substitute for having a little bit of experience behind you. Practice on the kind of material you want to caption, and offer to demonstrate your skills. If you are planning to do work for the television news industry, get to know the business and the terminology before you approach anybody. Make sure your equipment is in place and that you know how to use it. Certification is not required, but is a good thing to have.

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"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS)

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"Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS) is a mysterious atypical pneumonia disease due to one or more viruses that started in Southeast Asia in February 00. (1) SARS appears to be a respiratory disease, spread by a corona virus. () It is believed that the virus jumped from animals to humans in southern China. SARS has also affected many other countries including North America and parts of Europe. (1) Many people have already died from SARS. As of April 1, 00, there have been more than 4,000 cases of SARS and 17 deaths reported worldwide. The "Centers for Disease Control and Prevention" (CDC) and the "World Health Organization" (WHO) are taking the matters into their own investigations. () The symptoms of SARS begins with a slight fever greater than 100.4°F and my include headache, shortness of breath, low blood oxygen level and sore throat. Other possible symptoms include loss of appetite, confusion, rash, and diarrhea. After two to seven days, SARS patients may develop a dry cough and have trouble breathing. Symptoms of SARS, is less severe towards younger teens and children. They appear to suffer milder symptoms than adults and older teenagers and they may also be less infectious to other people. (1) In a study conducted by Professor Tai Fai Fok of the Department of Pediatrics at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Fok studied the first ten children who received treatment for SARS during the early phase of the epidemic there. The young teens, age's betweens 1-16, had symptoms similar to the adult cases, with muscle aches, headaches, chills, and respiratory distress. Cases with the children ages range between 18 months and seven years of age suffered the typical SARS symptoms of fever, coughs and runny nose. () SARS is very contagious disease that spreads from one person to another, like a common cold. Most SARS cases have involved family members or people that are caring for the patient that are carrying the disease, or have had direct contact with infectious materials. A potential way in which SARS can be spread, include touching the skin of other people or objects that are contaminated with infectious droplets and then touching one's eyes, nose, or mouth. This can happen when someone who is sick with SARS coughs or sneezes onto themselves, other people, or nearby surfaces. It is also possible that SARS can be spread more broadly through the air or by other ways that are currently not known. (4) There is also information concerning that SARS may remain on hands and surfaces for several hours. Recommendations by the "Food and Drug Administration" (FDA) states that strict hand-hygiene be enforced among food handlers and within the food processing industry.(8) Also, as with any contagious disease, proper hand washing is an important step everyone can take to reduce the spread of sickness. Wash your hands often with soap and hot water, or an alcohol-based hand sanitizer if water is not available after using the restroom and after sneezing or coughing. In addition, food workers should not handle ready-to-eat foods, such as sandwiches, vegetables and cut fruits, with bare hands, but should use gloves or utensils for an extra level of protection. (8)

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"Public Health Officials" (PHO) have created many strategies to contain the spread of SARS. (5) The two main strategies are isolation and quarantine. To control exposure to infected or potentially infected individuals both are common practices in public places. Isolation and quarantine may be undertaken voluntarily or forced by public health authorities. The two strategies differ in that isolation applies to people who are known to have a disease and quarantine applies to those who have been exposed to a disease, but who may or may not become infected.(1) So far, only one country has contained SARS. On April 8, 00, the WHO declared Vietnam the first country to contain a SARS outbreak within its borders. The WHO officially removed Vietnam from its list of countries affected by SARS after 0 consecutive days passed without a new reported case of the mysterious disease. At the peak of Vietnams SARS outbreak, more than 6 cases of SARS were reported, including five deaths. () Most of the U.S. cases of SARS have occurred among travelers returning to the United States from other parts of the world affected by SARS. There have been very few cases as a result of spread due to close contacts such as family members and health care workers. As of May 7, a total of 8 SARS cases in the United States have been reported from 8 states, although no SARS-related deaths have been reported in the United States. (6) SARS has affected many people and has also affected the global economy as well. For instance, it has made a huge impact on air travel, hotel industries, and many foreign businesses. The SARS outbreak has had a greater impact on tourism in countries like Singapore, Taiwan, Canada, and China. The CDC has been working closely with WHO and other partners to investigate cases of SARS in these countries. (4) The specific diagnose and evaluation for suspected SARS patients should include chest radiograph, pulse oximetry, blood cultures, sputum Grams stain and culture, testing for viral respiratory pathogens, notably influenza A and B, and respiratory syncytial virus. China says antibody offers a way to diagnose SARS. China has received encouraging results from a potential test for SARS that uses antibodies to diagnose the disease. The test looks for an antibody known as IgG, which the body produces in response to the virus that causes SARS. (10) Not much information is currently available on treatment for SARS. The WHO states that a cure may take some time. People with suspected SARS will be treated with medications that are effective against the diseases that cause similar symptoms. SARS can also be prevented by not traveling to places where there are known cases. (4)Also, prevent close contact with someone who is known or suspected to have SARS. (8) Due to the new nature of the disease, there is no vaccination to protect people from SARS. One of the major problems with SARS is that so much remains unknown. An important fact to remember is that all harmful viruses thrive in an acidic and low oxygen environment. Viruses also thrive in a body that has a weakened immune system, one that is dehydrated, malnourished and toxic, so be prepared for SARS and keep the immune system healthy.(7) 1. http//www.cdc.gov/ncidod/sars/. http//www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/severeacuterespiratorysyndrome.html . http//health.discovery.com/centers/allergyasthma/respiratory/SARS.html4. http//www.hc-sc.gc.ca/pphb-dgspsp/sars-sras/index.html5. http//www.cbc.ca/news/background/sars/6. http//www.phls.org.uk/topics_az/SARS/public_page.htm7. http//www.slu.edu/colleges/sph/csbei/emerginginfections/sars/quick.htm8. http//www.fda.gov/oc/opacom/hottopics/sars/. http//news.bbc.co.uk//hi/health/841.stm10. http//www.who.int/csr/sars/diagnostictests/en/ Please note that this sample paper on "Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS) is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on "Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS), we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on "Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome" (SARS) will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Utopiab by Sir thomas more

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Utopia by Sir Thomas MoreWhat Is The Difference Between Utopia Book 1 And Book ? What Does Utopia Book 1 and Book reflects? "1515, the Utopian literature began with the first edition of the book entitled Utopia by Sir Thomas More" (504). There are two versions of the Utopia, and the context is somewhat different. Comparing book 1 and book of Utopia, differences do exist.In book 1, inequality is the issue, and it is everywhere in the society. Inequality is a jealousy, demand for equality, and doctrine to justify why some people have more than other. Society where the inequality exists as the main issue, social mobility is likely to happen. It refers to "the movement of individual or groups from one position of a society to another" (571). In addition, unequal distribution of wealth and power are the reasons behind the poor people in the rural area move to urban area with the hope to get a well-pay job so that their life quality would be better. If well pay jobs were readily available in rural area, beggars on the street would not be the case. "Beggars in the street, convicted petty thieves hanging from the gibbets, hungry farmers displace from lands fenced off for more profitable sheep rearing" (505). However, by move into urban area, this does not guarantee he/she would get a job. In turns, they turned into beggars and/or petty thievery because there were no jobs and/or their skills are not in demand. To reflect the social condition of a community/country/city, number of beggars on street is the best tool. As a result, there would be more criminal cases. In other words, crime statistic reflects the social condition of the society. If not because of the inequality, then what would it be?

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Moreover, while theft occurs in all countries/communities/societies, a weak legal system allows for a much higher level of criminal action in some country than in others. Countries where law is not exist and enforce, the probability of people commit a crime is very high. Even in a country/community where law is enforces, crime is still happened. Until the basic necessities such as food, water, shelter, medicines and clothes are not satisfied, crime would remain the issue. Here is a turning point where innocent people turned into the petty thieves. In order to stay survive, they have do so, because there is not much choice for them but to commit a crime. Without do so, he/she and their family would starve to death, and they could not send their children to school. In short, these social conditions force many into thievery. In reality, this is one of the serious issues that need to be taken care. These children are the future of our world, and in order to make the world a better place to live. Without the community support, the future of the society/community is at risk. Because if the future generations are brought up in a bad environment and/or without given education, they are likely to be a problem of the society. Not only because of lives and assets of innocent people are at risk, but also more people would commit a crime. However, there are questions that left to be answers. Who will be responsible for the lives of these innocent children when their father/mother end up in jail? What needs to be done to reduce the crime rates and beggars on the street? As for book , equality of the people in society is the biggest issue. Communistic Democracy is the best words to describe Utopia because it represents two faces of the same coin. In other words, Utopia stresses the needs of society as a whole is generally viewed as being more important than individual freedoms. In such circumstances, an individual right to do something may be restricted on the grounds that it runs counter to the good of society. "Utopia strong influence of Plato's Republic, with its radically communistic re imagining of a society…" (504). Plato argued that individual rights should be sacrificed for the good of the majority and that property should be owned in common. In this type of society, everybody's are equal in both status and wealth. The goods that a country produces, and the quantity in which they are produced are all planned by the government. However, society where the money is not used and goods are distributed equally, theft is not a problem, nor is jealousy. This means the crime rates and beggars on the street are lesser than the society of book1. While the objective of a Utopia society is to mobilize economic resources for the public good, the opposite seems to have occurred. This type of society has little incentive to be efficient, because they cannot go out of business. In other words, Instead of growing where people standard of living improve and becoming more prosperous, such society tend to be characterized by stagnation. This means that people have little freedom to choose what they want to do, but to certain extent society allows people to do anything that would benefit the society as a whole. Although this is good for society as a whole because inequality is not an issue, the abolition of private ownership means there is no incentives for individual to look for better ways to serve consumer needs; hence dynamism and innovation are absent from the society. "The abolition of money and private property has prevented any neurotic attachment to goods and status, and the parasitic classes, rapacious soldiers have been eliminated" (504). Furthermore, book also includes rules and regulations that the community used to direct people and/or as a form of punishment. Some norm are also important to a society they are formalized into laws controlling people's behavior, "describes in detail the laws and customs of a country that bears a striking geographical resemblance to England" (504). Expectation carries with it penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norms. If we fail to live up to the norm, we may face punishment through sanctions such as jail sentences or fines. The sanction used to encourage conformity and to discourage violation of social norms where it usually carried out by authorize agents, such as police officers and military officer. This is part of the social control process because it can serve as a last resort when socialization does not bring about desired behavior. The challenge to effective social control is that people often receive competing message about how to behave, while the state or government/communities may clearly define acceptable behavior. In conclusion, Book 1 mainly emphasizes on inequality of the people that exist in the society, and in which, it influences social mobility. Also, because of the inequality and social condition, that's why people committed a crime, and the social itself punishes the victims for being thieves. In short, inequality leads to problem such as lobbying and murder where innocent people are affected. Whereas the main issue in book is about the equality of the people. Here it reflects the society everybody is equal and where people are united. This mean whether rich or poor, male or female, if the expected behavior is not being met, punishment is likely to happen.

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Costa rican labor laws

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Hiring of EmployeesFrom the perspective of the employer, and especially of a foreign investor looking to establish a facility in Costa Rica, the hiring of employees is a basic matter that should be considered in advance.Conditions and RestrictionsAll employment relationships are regulated by the Labor Code, as amended. Its regulations are the basis for all relationships between the worker and the employer and, except in some special cases, this relationship is guided by the principle that the rights of the workers may not be waived in any form.

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An employee is defined as any person who performs services pursuant to an express or implied work contract, either written or oral, individual or collective, in return for a wage. An employer is defined as any entity, either private or public, that employs the services of others and pays wages pursuant to an express or implied work contract, either oral or written, individual or collective.As these definitions indicate, the labor relationship between an employer and an employee is contractual in nature, but, unlike a civil or commercial contract, an employment contracts terms and conditions are restricted by the basic principles established by the Labor Code. An employment contract under Costa Rican law binds the worker only insofar as it does not violate any of the principles of the Labor Code.The employment contract obligates the employer to abide by its specific terms, not just those contemplated by the Labor Code. If an employment contract grants an employee rights, or benefits, beyond those mandated by the Labor Code, those extra rights or benefits will be enforceable against the employer. Consequently, special care should be taken in executing labor contracts with terms and conditions beyond those required by the Labor Code (e.g., labor contracts with executives and high-ranking employees), since these obligations will be enforceable against the employer, but not necessarily against the employee.There are three essential conditions that must be met to establish an employment relationship (a) one person must obligate himself to perform duties or services for another, (b) under direct supervision of another, (c) for the payment of a salary or some type of compensation. If any one of these conditions is not met, there is no employer-employee relationship, and the relationship is not regulated by the Labor Code.Individual Labor ContractThe employment contract may be written or oral. The Labor Code specifically requires the employer to sign a written contract with the employee, but if this is not done, the law will presume the existence of an oral contract to protect the rights of the worker.The Labor Code assumes that an employment relationship is governed by the conduct between the worker and the employer. Therefore, the terms and conditions of a labor contract will always be based upon the situation that actually exists between the parties, and not necessarily what is written in the contract. From a litigation perspective, if a party can demonstrate that the actual conditions of the employment relationship were different from those established in the written contract, the actual conditions will prevail, and a judge would be required to base his decision on the actual conditions rather than those stated in the contract. For this reason, employers should take care to avoid changing labor conditions from those established in a written contract.Recently, because of Costa Ricas presence in international markets, it has become common to include in high-ranking employees contracts confidentiality, nondisclosure, and noncompetition provisions. Because these specific provisions are not necessarily consistent with the principles of the Labor Code, their enforceability is questionable. Nevertheless, they have become an increasingly popular means of discouraging disclosure of sensitive information and competition from former employees.Special Legislation for Minors and Pregnant WomenThe Labor Code specifically prohibits women and minors (children under the age of eighteen) from working in jobs that are physically or mentally unhealthy or dangerous. It also prohibits minors from working at night or in clubs, bars, or any other establishment that sells liquor.In situations in which the employment of minors is not barred by the Labor Code, a minor may be allowed to work upon obtaining a special permit from the Patronato Nacional de la Infancia, an institution created to protect and defend the rights of minors. If the minor is between fifteen and eighteen years old, however, he may not work more than seven hours a day or forty-two hours a week. If the minor is between twelve and fifteen years old, he may work only five hours a day or thirty hours a week, and the work may not interfere in any way with school.It is unusual to find minors working in industrial factories, because the specialized work required in these factories typically is not suitable for them. In the case of agricultural operations, however, children are often utilized, most often at harvest time in the coffee industry.The work of pregnant women is also heavily regulated by special provisions of the Labor Code. These special provisions can be divided into two areas (i) benefits given to pregnant women, and (ii) compensation provided to pregnant women if they are terminated because of their condition.Pregnancy and Maternity LeaveThe law provides pregnant women with a paid maternity leave that starts one month before the expected delivery date and ends three months following the birth. It also gives pregnant women the right to breast feed their children at work for fifteen minutes every three hours or, if they prefer, half an hour two times a day.The Labor Code generally prohibits an employer from firing a woman who is pregnant. If an employer wants to discharge a pregnant woman for cause, however, there is a special, formal procedure through the Ministry of Labor to obtain authorization for the dismissal. This procedure usually takes longer than the pregnancy, and until the procedure is completed the employer must still pay the woman her salary. There is, therefore, little financial incentive to discharge a pregnant worker pursuant to this procedure. If an employer discharges a pregnant worker without following the procedure, the worker unlawfully discharged will have the right to file a claim for damages. Damages, as set out in the law, equal the salary of the worker for the time remaining in her pregnancy, plus four additional months pay and interest up to the date of payment.This special protection was enacted to prevent employers from firing pregnant women to avoid the payment of the four-month leave and the other special concessions required by law. With the increasing participation of women in the Costa Rican work force during the last three decades, it is not an uncommon practice for an employer and a pregnant employee to agree on certain terms to accommodate the needs of both the new mother and the company. These agreements are generally limited to executives and are not regulated by law.Wages and Other CompensationIndexing the Minimum WageTo maintain control of inflation and the devaluation of local currency, the Costa Rican government has established what are known as mini devaluations, which are very small decreases (approximately one-tenth of a Colon per day) in the value of the currency with respect to the U.S. dollar. These mini devaluations are done on a daily basis by the Central Bank of Costa Rica. This procedure, as well as internal inflation, which ranges from ten to fifteen percent annually, diminishes the buying power of salaries every day, resulting in an overall reduction in the workers income.The government publishes semi-annually a presidential decree establishing the minimum wages for various sectors of the economy, designed to offset inflation. The presidential decree states a minimum wage for labor categories on an hourly, daily, and monthly basis.BonificationsAn employer may grant the employee additional benefits based on the net profits of the company or any other measure of performance. These benefits are called bonifications and are not considered to be salary, but rather are an incentive for the employees to increase their efficiency.To maintain the bonifications as nonsalary payments, the employer must pay them on a temporary basis, subject to the will of the employer. If the benefits are paid on a periodic basis, subject to objective conditions that, if met, automatically entitle the employee to the benefit, these payments will be considered to be part of the salary of the worker for the purposes of social security, income tax, and severance benefits.Most benefits normally given to employees can be structured in a manner that will qualify them as a bonification. It is necessary, however, for employers to do this well in advance of payment so that the benefits might qualify.School SalaryIn 15, a special law was enacted to try to ensure that at the beginning of the school year parents would have sufficient money available to pay for school materials. This extra amount is known as school salary. School salary compensates parents for the extra expenses associated with the beginning of school--expenses that have a particular impact on those workers earning minimum wage. The calculation procedure for the school salary is established by law and is regulated by the Ministry of Labor. The law states that any employee who earns minimum wage will receive an additional two percent raise in his salary each year, and the total amount will be paid to the employee at the beginning of February.Vacation and HolidaysModifications to the Labor Contract (Ius Variandi)One of the fundamental principles of Costa Rican labor law, known as Ius Variandi, states that an employer may not, under any circumstances, change the basic conditions of the employment contract to the detriment of an employee without the express consent of that employee.The law defines basic conditions as salary, shifts, place of work, and form of salary payment. If the employer changes any of these basic conditions without the express consent of the employee, the employee has the right to terminate the contract with full payment of severance benefits.Other provisions of the contract that are not considered to be basic conditions may be modified by the employer without the consent of the employee, provided those changes will not directly or indirectly modify the basic conditions of the agreement. Usually, the modification powers of an employer will vary from one economic activity to another, since the essential conditions of a contract are closely related to the type of job the employee is performing.Yearly VacationsRest for the employee is a well-protected right under the Costa Rican Labor Code. Social, health and efficiency considerations all support the rationale behind the right of the employee to obtain appropriate rest after a certain number of working days.Employees have the right to two weeks of paid vacation for every fifty-two weeks of continuous work for the same employer. An employee may not take vacations in segments smaller than a week. Also, an employee may not accumulate vacation time over a period of more than two years. The salary of an employee during a week of vacation is the average weekly salary (ordinary and overtime) that the employee has received during the previous fifty-two weeks.The Labor Code allows a day of rest after six consecutive days of work, normally on Sunday, although this day of rest is not considered to be vacation. Most blue collar workers also do not work on Saturdays, this being an additional rest day. In rural areas and agricultural facilities, however, workers typically perform their normal duties on Saturday and have only Sunday as a rest day.Social SecurityEmployers are considered to be registration and retention agents for the social security system, and are required to register their workers with the Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social (Social Security Agency)1 immediately after the workers are hired. Failure to do so will result in the employer having to pay any and all medical bills that the employee incurs during the time the employee was not registered, together with interest and fines attributable to unpaid social security contributions from the date of the employees hiring.Employers must pay an amount equal to twenty-two percent of the salary of each employee to the Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social and must withhold from employees wages nine percent of the salary, which is forwarded to the Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social on a monthly basis. Failure of the employer to pay money due results in interest payments and penalties, but failure to turn over the money retained constitutes a criminal offense punishable by a jail sentence.Termination of Labor ContractsTermination without Just CauseAn employer has the right to fire any worker at any time for whatever reason, but in the absence of statutorily defined just cause for termination, the employer must give the employee being discharged advance notice of termination and severance pay.The amount of advance notice that an employer must give before terminating an employee depends on the employees length of service. During the first three months of employment, the employee is entitled to no advance notice. Thereafter, the amount of notice that is required is determined as follows - after continuous work for more than three months but less than six months, a minimum of one weeks notice;- after continuous work for more than six months but less than a year, a minimum of fifteen days notice; - after continuous work for more than one year, a minimum of one months notice.The employer must give the discharged employee severance pay in accordance with the following schedule - after continuous work for more than three months but less than six months, the employer must pay the equivalent of ten days of salary; - after continuous work for more than six months but less than a year, the employer must pay the equivalent of twenty days of salary; - after continuous work for more than one year, the employer must pay the equivalent of one month of salary for every year worked.Severance pay may never be more than the equivalent of eight months salary unless previously agreed upon by the parties.Termination with Just CauseThe Costa Rican Labor Code lists the reasons for which an employer may terminate the contract of an employee with just cause, thereby eliminating the right of the employee to receive advance notice of termination and severance pay. Each of the following situations constitutes just cause for termination; when the employee- during working hours, conducts himself in an immoral manner or defames, insults, or assaults his employer; - during working hours, defames, insults, or assaults his co-workers; - outside of working hours, defames, insults, or assaults his employers or any representative thereof; - commits any crime or act against the property of the employer, or when he intentionally causes material damage to machinery, tools, raw materials, products, or any other object directly related to the work;- reveals technical, commercial, or industrial secrets of the employer; - compromises the security of the workplace and of other employees by his gross negligence; - without just cause, does not report to work for two consecutive work days or three or more days in the same month;- refuses to follow security measures established for the safety of the workplace and the work force, or when the employee refuses to follow the rules established by the employer to achieve better efficiency and performance;- has been reprimanded by the employer once and continues to commit the same offense; - falsifies his qualifications; - is incarcerated; and - does anything else that is considered to be a grievous violation of the employment contract.Bankruptcy of EmployerIn the event of an employers bankruptcy or insolvency, the employees contract is automatically terminated, and the employer must give pay in lieu of notice, severance pay, unpaid vacations, and the thirteenth month salary. To guarantee these payments, all assets of the employer are attached to pay a pro rata share of each employees compensation.Ministry of Labor and Labor CourtsMinistry of Labor ProceduresThe Ministry of Labor has set up a conciliatory program for employees who have been fired without just cause or who have not been paid by their employer. Both parties are summoned to meet with a representative of the Ministry to try to resolve their differences. This procedure is not mandatory, and if no conciliation is achieved, the employee must go to court to obtain any amount owed to him.Labor Court ProceduresThe procedures for labor lawsuits are basically the same as those in any other type of civil litigation. Depending on the region, population, and amount being requested, a lawsuit can last anywhere from six months to five years.ConciliationBefore the trial of a lawsuit begins, another conciliation process, which is mandatory for both parties, is initiated by the judge. If a conciliation agreement is achieved, the judge, through a final resolution, accepts the agreement and ends the trial. If, however, the conciliation process is not successful, the judge will move immediately to hear witnesses in the case and will thereafter render a decision. If the employee is granted pay in lieu of notice and severance pay by the judge, the employee may attach the assets of the employer to receive the awarded pay.Although the Costa Rican Labor Code does not provide for the award of punitive damages to an unjustly fired employee, some recent court decisions have granted this payment, limited to a maximum of six months salary.

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Lourdes

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INTRODUCTION ʏ

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ʏIMPORTANT DATES7th. January 1844 The birth of Bernadette Soubirous in the Boly Mill. She is the daughter of François Soubirous, miller, and his wife Louise Castrot.th. January 1844 Baptism of Bernadette Soubirous.11th. February 1858 to 16th. July 1858 Eighteen Apparitions of the Virgin Mary at the Grotto of Massabielle.4th. July 1866 Bernadette leaves Lourdes for Nevers.th. July 1866 Bernadette receives the Religious Habit of the Congregation of the Sisters of Charity of Nevers. She receives the name Sister Marie-Bernard.0th. October 1867 Her Religious Profession in the Congregation of the Sisters of Charity of Nevers.16th. April 187 (Wednesday of Easter) The death of Bernadette.14th. June 15 Beatification of Bernadette.8th. December 1 Canonisation of Bernadette by Pope Pius XI at St. Peters in Rome. BERNADETTE HERSELFMarie Lagus, foster-mother of Bernadette.As a baby, Bernadette was already very loveable, the neighbours loved to see her and to hold her in their arms. You could not stop loving her enough, she was sweet and loveable. Bernadette, in spite of the tiredness which was caused by her shortness of breath and difficulty in breathing, always appeared happy and cheerful. She never gave us any trouble, she took what she was given, and appeared happy. We loved her very much as well. (1857) Bernarde Castrot, aunt and godmother of Bernadette.Bernadette was always good natured, she was very docile; when scolded, she never retaliated. Abb Pène, Curate, or Assistant Priest, of the Parish of Lourdes in 1858.Bernadette was small for her age, puny, slightly asthmatic, her face was round but regular, beautiful eyes. Her slim size would allow her to pass for a young girl about two or three years younger than she really was. everything about Bernadette radiated naïvety, simplicity, goodness. Jean Barbet, teacher.Bernadette has difficulty to retain the Catechism word by word, because she cannot study, she does not know how to read, but she puts a lot of care into the appropriate meaning of the explanations. Besides, she is very attentive, above all very pious and modest. THE WATER AT LOURDESThe water at Lourdes is spring water, pure, drinkable, identical to all other water in the area, is a sign not a fetish. Bernadette Soubirous, herself said; THE WATER IS TAKEN AS A M E D I C I N E…YOU MUST HAVE FAITH, YOU MUST PRAY THIS WATER HAS NO EFFECT WITHOUT FAITH ! The deeper meaning of the water of Lourdes is written above the taps Wash your face, drink this water and pray God to purify your heart. The spring of the Grotto is directed in channels up a gentle slope towards two underground holding tanks which hold almost one million litres, one close to the taps and the other under the Rosary Basilica. The temperature of the water is kept at 1ºC exactly. From there the water is pumped to a large reservoir of ,000m². It is from this high point that the taps, the baths, the dispatch point for sending the water of Lourdes throughout the world are supplied. The water is shipped free, except for postage charges charge. 8,500m² of water are used annually in the baths and the taps. ʏCURES FROM THE WATER There have been many claims stated by some of the handicapped and ill saying their illness or disability had been cured after bathing in the sacred water. In most cases, there has been a scientific explanation of coincidental cures that have occurred shortly after a visit to Lourdes. Here is a piece explaining what has to be undergone to prove a whether a claimed cure is valid or not.I-Medical Examination.1 - THE CRITERIA FOR A CURE.For the medical study to be able to find in favour of a cure to be certain, definitive and medically inexplicable it must be establishedthat the fact and the diagnosis of the illness is first of all established and correctly diagnosed; that the prognosis must be permanent or terminal in the short term; that the cure is immediate, without convalescence, complete and lasting; that the prescribed treatment could not be attributed to the cause of this cure or be an aid to it. - THE EXAMINATION OF THE MEDICAL BUREAU OF LOURDES.The sick who come to Lourdes with a pilgrimage group are accompanied by a doctor who is furnished with a medical file describing their present condition.This file, normally explicit enough, forms the base to work from when a pilgrim declares that they have been cured. The file and the pilgrim who claims to have been cured are presented to the Medical Bureau, that is, to the doctor who is permanently in Lourdes who will then gather together the members of the medical profession present in Lourdes on that day and who wish to participate in this examination.No definite conclusion will be given at the end of this examination. The person who claims to have been cured will be invited to meet the Medical Commission the following year and/or for many subsequent years.Finally, after many successful examinations the file of the cure will be sent (if ¾ of the doctors present so wish) to the International Medical Committee. - THE EXAMINATION BY THE LOURDES INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL COMMITTEE. (CMIL) This second level of enquiry exists since 147. At first it was the Lourdes National Medical Committee then it became the International Committee in 154.The Committee is made up of thirty specialists, surgeons, professors or Heads of Department‚ from different countries that meet once each year. The current President is Professor Jean-Louis Armand-Laroche.The International Medical Committee of Lourdes (CMIL) has a consultative role.It will allow an assessment to continue over several years in order to observe the development of the patient before they arrive at any opinion.If CMIL gives a favourable opinion the file is then sent to the competent church authorities.Since 147 until recently, 100 files have been opened, each one for the declaration of a cure.The CMIL met about thirty times between 147 and 18. They have presented files to the Church, 1 have been judged to be miraculous. Before the CMIL came into being the Church had recognised 46 miracles.II - Enquiry and decision of a miracle by the Church.When the file is sent to the Bishop of the place where the cured person lives, the case is already recognised as extraordinary by science and medically inexplicable.It remains for the Church, through the intermediary of the Bishop, to make an announcement on the miraculous character of the cure.To do this, the Bishop gathers together a Diocesan Canonical Commission made up of priests, canonists, and theologians. The rules that guide the procedures of this Commission are those defined in 174 by the future Pope Benedict XIV in his treatise Concerning the Beatification and Canonisation of Servants of God (Book IV, Part I, Chapter VIII nø)In summary the rules demand that there must not be found in the cure any valid explanation, medical or scientific, natural or usual. This is the case for the cures that have taken place at Lourdes, as we will see.. Having established this, it remains for the Canonical Commission to determine that this cure comes from God.Furnished with conclusions reached by the Commission, it is the responsibility of the Bishop to make a definitive pronouncement and to suggest to his Diocese and to the world that they see this cure as a sign from God.

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Language, World in Western Literary Criticism

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Western critical theory has got rapid development in the 0th century. Following the full development of Russian Formalism in the early 0th century, other literary theories, such as new criticism, phenomenology, hermeneutics, reception theory, structuralism, deconstruction, come into being. Although all the theories have their specific concerns, they concentrate on a number of questions, such as the locus of literary meaning, the status of the text, the role of the reader, the function of language in the text, the relation between literary and society (history). It is certain that all theories have their strengths and weaknesses, but having a clear understanding of their theories and making a scientific judgment will enable us to have better correct attitudes towards literary works. Here, in this paper, I will tell my understanding of western literary criticism from two aspects, language and history. Formalism Formalism places the study of literature on a scientific footing by defining its object and establishing its own methods and procedures. In other words, they are making efforts to find the internal laws and principles that make a piece of literature literary, or the form of literature. They study the form of the work (as opposed to its content), although form to a formalist can connote anything from genre (for example, one may speak of the sonnet form) to grammatical or rhetorical structure to the emotional imperative that engenders the works (more mechanical) structure. No matter which connotation of form pertains, however, formalists seek to be objective in their analysis, focusing on the work itself and avoiding external considerations. They pay particular attention to literary devices used in the work and to the patterns these devices establish.Formalists have generally suggested that everyday language, which serves simply to communicate information, is stale and unimaginative. They argue that literariness has the capacity to overturn common and expected patterns (of grammar, of story line), thereby rejuvenating language. This doesn¡¯t mean that literature language is difficult language, but literature language lays emphasis on the process of experience. Then what can be done to achieve ¡®literariness¡¯? They put forward the concept of ¡°defamiliarization¡±, to make objects unfamiliar, to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged.(from Art as Technique by Shklovsky). Eagleton could not accept the concept of estrangement. He says, that a piece of language was estranging doesn¡¯t guarantee that it is always and everywhere so; it is estranging only against a certain normative linguistic background and if this alters then the writing might cease to be perceptible as literature. As to literariness, Eagleton says that it is a function of the differential relations between one sort of discourse and another; it is not an eternally given property, and ¡° it is in fact historically specific.¡± The Formalists quite rightly thought that literary criticism was overburdened with socio-political issues. In the late nineteenth century literature was indeed one of the principal media of discussion for political and philosophical issues. Consequently literary criticism was almost exclusively the guarded territory of journalism. Literary criticism was not considered an academic activity. Before the appearance of the Formalists, academic research, quite ignorant of theoretical problems, made use of antiquated aesthetic, psychological, and historical ¡®axioms¡¯ and had so lost sight of its proper subject that its very existence as a science had become illusory. There was almost no struggle between the Formalists and the Academicians, not because the Formalists had broken in the door (there were no doors), but because we found an open passage-way instead of a fortress. (Boris Eikhenbaum, The Theory of the ¡®Formal Method¡¯, Öì¸Õ£¬¡¶¶þÊ®ÊÀ¼ÍÎ÷·½ÎÄÕÅúÆÀÀíÂÛ¡·). Though the formalists did not deny that art had a relation to social reality they provocatively claimed that this relation was not the critic¡¯s business. So what they care in literary criticism is just form not the content which has certain relation with social reality. The most severe criticism of formalism comes from Marxism. Trotosky remarks that the form of art is, to a certain and very large degree, independent, but the artist who creates this form, and the spectator who is enjoying it, are not empty machines.New Criticism Help with essay on Language, World in Western Literary Criticism

While Formalism was prevailing in Russia, there arose a similar literary movement in Europe and America, the New Criticism. New Criticism shares something with Russian Formalism; it keeps literary form as the only proper target of literary criticism.For most of the New Critics that job is practical criticism or close reading, in which the poem or literary text is treated as a self-sufficient verbal artifact. By careful attention to language, the text is presumed to be a unique and privileged source of meaning and value, sharply distinguished from other texts or other uses of language (particularly scientific language). Accordingly, the meaning of the poem is not conveyed by any prose paraphrase and is valued as the source of an experience (for the reader) available in no other way. For this among other reasons, opponents of the New Critics have frequently charged that they ignore history, ideology, politics, philosophy, or other factors that shape literary experience. While such charges are not entirely fair, they arise because New Criticism in practice came to focus almost exclusively on problems of interpreting individual texts. Above all New Criticism removed literature from the realm of politics. The text was interesting in itself, not in what it said about the world or how it was produced at it own historical moment. New criticism has a belief in the study of literature as independent of historical or authorial origins. The New Critics believed in this idea of the ¡®text in itself¡¯. Richards tries to explain literary reading in terms of modern semantics and psychology. His new criticism is psychological criticism which is not spontaneous response, but psychological response. It is practical criticism. In Practical Criticism, Richards puts forward four functions of language (sense, feeling, tone, and intention). We have symbolic discourse (scientific/poetic language) and evocative discourse. There is mysterious time of the evocator and the evocated in poetry. What is important in literature is how to evocate feelings. Richards has psychological concern about the text language. He is concerned how the readers are affected psychologically. So his criticism belongs to affective criticism. Richards¡¯ criticism not just persists in the text. His second stage concern is how emotion is aroused. It starts from the reader¡¯s view point, but it is more scientific.Ransom doesn¡¯t agree with Richards. He says that the primary task of literature is to deal with the objects. Language has meaning, language has reference to objects. If we have objects, the feelings will spontaneously attach to it, it is personal experience, so it is not necessary to talk about emotion and we just need to talk about the text. So long as the object seems sufficient on our feelings, it is not the critics¡¯ task to talk about emotion.T. S. Eliot is a member of new criticism. He focuses attention on tradition. In his classicism poetry, he emphasizes universal, in contrast with romanticism which emphasizes the individual. He says that no text can have an independent meaning. All texts depend on other texts for its meaning. So literary tradition, such as poems, belong to other texts. Then we have so called archetype. It means that any new text is new realization of the previous traditional texts. For Eliot the great poem is transparent, not of the authors mind but in terms of what the poem is about. ¡®The end of the enjoyment of poetry is a pure contemplation from which all accidents of personal emotion are removed; thus we aim to see the object as it really is. We focus on the object as it really is -- the poetic language at best effaces itself to allow view of what the poem is about. Eliot also believed that society was degenerating from an original organic state. He called this the ¡®dissociation of sensibilities¡¯-- a fatal split between intellect and feeling which he thought occurred sometime in the C17th.Leavis focuses on the language too, but he is different from the new critics. Leavis says that industry brings evils, alienation, and turn everything into commodity. We need something to save the society. Religion has failed for the development of science. Literature would provide us with life experience, so his criticism is criticism of life, to search for life behind language. But new criticism just goes through language, the surface of text. To Leavis, literature is also a reflection of ideology, and literature is panacea, social cement. He proposes not to change society, just to survive it. As to this point, Eagleton says that Leavis places too much emphasis on literature. Literature is not panacea. Leavis has put things upside down. To save society, we have to work from bottom to top.The following is the main differences between Leavis and the New Critics(1) The text and the authorLeavis discussion of work often slides into analysis of author¡¯s mind commonsense view of the author as the origin of meaning.New Critics author based reading is intentional fallacy. Work is self-sufficient.() The text and realityLeavis poetry must be about life, but he does not really explain whose life.New Critics The text is self-contained, but is supposed ultimately to return to reality. This is a philosophical stance--in practice new critics rarely has reference outside the specifically literary qualities of the text.() The text and reader Leavis Reader must be trained to respond sensitively to poetry.New Critics It is affective fallacy. Meaning must be in the text rather than a production of the reader.(4) The text and languageLeavis the text must have organic connection to life and language should be ¡®concrete¡¯.New Critics the text has poetic language, so it cannot be paraphrased.Eagleton adopts a critical attitudes toward all these new critics. ¡°What we value will not be our free choice, but be decided by the society in literature.¡± Eagleton here wants to clear away the subjectivity or any individual choice as literature. As to Eliot¡¯s view that tradition will never make mistakes, Eagleton says tradition is only a mystery. To Eagleton, Ransom¡¯s ontology, text has ontological meaning, is myth.PhenomenologyPhenomenological criticism, an idealist, essentialist, anti-historical, formalist and organicist type of criticism, aims at a wholly ¡®immanent¡¯ reading of the text, totally unaffected by anything outside it. Husserl, the chief representative of phenomenology, bracketed the real object, then the actual historical context of the literary work, its author, conditions of production and readership are ignored. 1. language For phenomenological criticism, the language of a literary work is little more than an ¡®expression¡¯ of its inner meanings. There is little place for language as such in Husserlian phenomenology. Husserl speaks of a purely private or internal sphere of experience; but such a sphere is in fact a fiction, since all experience involves language and language is ineradicably social. For Husserl, meaning is something which pre-dates language language is no more than a secondary activity which gives names to meanings. Husserl focused on things as they show themselves. The philosophy was to let things appear as they are or to refrain from reading our presuppositions into a text. The purpose of Husserls phenomenological reduction is to focus on what is immediate to experience, Everything not immanent to consciousness must be rigorously excluded. In this approach the meaning of the text has been fixed by the language and exists in an idealist sense. Eagleton phenomenology promises to give a firm grounding for human knowledge, but can do so only at a massive cost the sacrifice of human history itself. For surely human meanings are in a deep sense historical they are not a question of intuiting the universal essence of what it is to be an onion, but a matter of changing, practical transactions between social individuals. . World Husserl believes that we firstly think by our own language, then find suitable language for the idea, so he believes languages is in a secondary position. Thus we have pure meaning in Husserl, and this meaning is not influenced by history. According to Eagleton, meaning is actually product of specific historical point, and no meaning can be deprived from perspective.Hermeneutics Husserl and Heidegger share some similarities. They both agree the scientific understanding of the society should be rejected, but Heidegger brings history to the understanding of Hermeneutics. The recognition that meaning is historical was what led Husserl¡¯s most celebrated pupil, the German philosopher Martin Heidegger, to break with his system of thought. Heidegger holds that language in not merely a device for human communication, it brings the world to be in the first place. Only where there is language is there ¡®world¡¯. He adds that language has an existence of its own in which human beings come to participate, and only by participating in it do they come to be human at all. Heidegger¡¯s hermeneutics is generally referred to as ¡®hermeneutical phenomenology¡¯ to distinguish it from Husserl¡¯s ¡®transcendental phenomenology¡¯ because it bases its theory on questions of historical interpretation rather than on transcendental consciousness. Structuralism Structuralism is appealing to some critics because it adds a certain objectivity, a SCIENTIFIC objectivity, to the realm of literary studies (which have often been criticized as purely subjective/impressionistic) This scientific objectivity is achieved by subordinating parole to langue; actual usage is abandoned in favor of studying the structure of a system in the abstract. Thus structuralist readings ignore the specificity of actual texts. In structuralism, the individuality of the text disappears in favor of looking at patterns, systems, and structures. Some structuralists (and a related school of critics, called the Russian Formalists) propose that ALL narratives can be charted as variations on certain basic universal narrative patterns. In this way of looking at narratives, the author is canceled out, since the text is a function of a system, not of an individual. Structuralism argues that any piece of writing, or any signifying system, has no origin, and that authors merely inhabit pre-existing structures (langue) that enable them to make any particular sentence (or story)--any parole. Hence there is the idea that language speaks us, rather than that we speak language. We dont originate language; we inhabit a structure that enables us to speak; what we perceive as our originality is simply our recombination of some of the elements in the pre-existing system. Hence every text, and every sentence we speak or write, is made up of the already written. By focusing on the system itself, in a synchronic analysis, structuralists cancel out history. Most insist, as Levi-Strauss does, that structures are universal, therefore timeless. Structuralists cant account for change or development; they are uninterested, for example, in how literary forms may have changed over time. They are not interested in a texts production or reception/consumption, but only in the structures that shape it. In erasing the author, the individual text, the reader, and history, structuralism represented a major challenge to what we now call the liberal humanist tradition in literary criticism. Eagleton attacks structuralism for structuralism holds that social reality or history may be a condition of change of literary form, but it¡¯s not the cause of the change of literary form.Post-Structuralism while structuralism seeks to establish a science or poetics of literature, post-structuralist thought, has taken an anti-scientific stance and, pursuing the infinite play of signifiers, has resisted the imposition of any organising system. The leading figure in deconstruction, Jacques Derrida, looks at philosophy (Western metaphysics) to see that any system necessarily posits a CENTER, a point from which everything comes, and to which everything refers or returns. In his paper ¡°Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Science,¡± Derrida says that any structure has a fixed origin as the center of ¡°structurality.¡± This center allows for and limits the freeplay of the structural elements, since it both organizes and balances the structure. However, to preside over the structure, this organizer is not part of the organization so that freeplay will not affect the center. The center, in this sense both within and outside the structure, is both the center and not the center. To post-structuralists, meaning is not immediately present in a sign. Meaning is scattered along the whole chain of signifiers, and it is a kind of constant flickering of presence and absence together. There is no fixed meaning in the text. When we read a text, a sentence doesn¡¯t have its own meaning. The sentence¡¯s meaning is changing. Language in post-structuralism is much less stable. Eagleton has his comment on post-structuralism. He says that Derrida¡¯s work has been unhistorical, politically evasive and in practice oblivious to language as ¡®discourse¡¯.

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We Were Soldiers

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We Were Soldiers We Were Soldiers is based on a true story about the first major battle in Vietnam. The movie has an extensive cast including Mel Gibson, Madeleine Stowe, Greg Kinnear, Chris Klein, and Sam Elliot. Director and writer Randall Wallace, known for Braveheart, puts together a fairly accurate portrayal of the battle. The motion picture illustrates the battle of Ia Drang, located in Northern Vietnam. That battle is said to be one of the most gory and fierce battles of the war. The United States was facing a new enemy and did not know quite how to fight it. Hidden by massive jungles and ravines, the Vietcong, known as VC, had a different way of fighting than the US had experienced. To accommodate this, the U.S. used Huey Helicopters to transport men and supplies to the front-line. Colonel Hal Moore (Mel Gibson) leads the first Battalion, 7th Cavalry (along with 400 men) into what is said to be the "Valley of Death." Unaware of what he is up against, Col. Moore and his men exit the helicopters and begin to patrol the area. Minutes later, they find out base-headquarters of the North Vietcong is directly in front of them. The North Vietcong was estimated to be 4000 men strong; this compared to Moore's 400 men. Almost immediately, intense shooting and bomb-bardment broke. For many of Moore's men, that was the first combat situation they had experienced. US soldiers are pushed to the brink of annihilation in order to hold their ground and keep the VC from overrunning them. The intense fighting goes on for days. In the end, over 1,800 Vietcong soldiers were dead and 155 US soldiers had given their life for their country (We Were Soldiers). The Film, "We Were Soldiers," is a historical account of the first major battle of Vietnam; This paper will explore both the accurate angle, as well as the fabricated dialogue using factual documentation. "We Were Soldiers" is a film directed towards the American people. The film shows everyone working together. Wallace wants the audience to believe that great teamwork and equality existed. Moore says, "We are a battalion of many nationalities, ethnic groups, religions, black, white, Asian, but on that battle field none of that will matter. You will watch eachothers back as they will watch yours" (We Were Soldiers). "In this film there are no cowards, no racists. Everyone pulls together; nobody runs in fear; and everybody holds their ground. U.S. soldiers die saying things like, Tell my wife I love them, and I'm glad I got the chance to die for my country"(Paul D'Amato). These words cause an inaccurate portrayal of what actually occurred between soldiers of different colors and nationalities. Not every soldier was a brave American hero as the movie sets out to do. According to Soldiers in Revolt, a historical book that recaps the war, there were many cowards and soldiers that did not follow orders. Here, every soldier is mindful, obeys, and never pulls back. This is what makes the American audience feel reassured about the soldiers we have fighting for us. Furthermore, Buy cheap We Were Soldiers term paper

the Vietnam War takes place in the mid 160's, a time when whites and blacks had a separate but equal policy. However, this film shows men of all colors acting as if skin color was not an issue. Wallace does this to show the audience how America pulls together during a time of war. Soldiers in Revolt states, "soldiers formed their own cliques, mainly consisting of soldiers with the same skin color" (66). This statement contradicts what Wallace was trying to depict about how the soldiers got along. Second, "If Ia Drang was put into its proper historical context, it would be portrayed as a battle in which poorly armed, but more motivated Vietnamese soldiers, fighting for their homeland, confronted forces with far greater military capabilities and showed for the first time the US had a fight on their hands"(Paul D'Amato). The US went into this war underestimating their enemy, thus costing many American soldiers their lives. The Vietcong were inferior in comparison with the American air power as well as artillery (Galloway). However, they were masters in guerrilla warfare, a method the US was not accustomed to. The film shows how brave and well the Americans fought outnumbered 10 to 1. Yet without the air support and artillery, the Americans would have for surely been overrun by the massive number of men they were facing. Generals in the Pentagon thought Moore would not have any problem defeating the enemy with the amount of air support and weapons possessed by the American military. The Americans did not know how many men they were facing; did not know the terrain; and did not know the Vietcongs capabilities. This lack of knowledge ends up being very costly to American lives. The Americans were waging a war halfway across the world, whereas the Vietcong were fighting on their home turf. This gave the VC more motivation to keep fighting. This film portrays "Ia Drang campaign as a US victory. This is completely shortsighted"(Paul D'Amoto). By winning this major battle, it causes the audience to assume that America wins the war. That is far from the truth. America is a country far greater in population as well as size. We are far more advanced than Vietnam and have far more money than Vietnam. "America possesses some of the most brilliant Generals in the world" (Nam 6). According to Nam, a historical recap of Vietnam, "America's fighting men won every major battle, including such crucial conflicts as Ap Bia…in the Au Shau Valley, Khe Sanh and Tet 167, yet we lost the war."(66)Lastly, the film has many small things that are not historically correct. The movie claims there were 400 men. According to Nam and an account with Moore himself, there were more like 450 soldiers that fought in the "Valley of Death". Wallace did this to make the American odds even higher than they already are. Nam claims that 16 huey helicopters airlifted the men but the movie shows only 11. It also seemed that when a soldier died, the next day the widow would receive a telegram. There is no way a wife could receive confirmation of her husbands death that quickly. This film has many factual things incorporated into it. Overall, the film remains pretty consistent with testimonies from other soldiers including, Col. Hal Moore who, along with Joe Galloway, a reporter that worked with Moore, wrote the book, "We Were Soldiers once young". We Were Soldiers portrayed Moore fairly well. Moore knew he was facing something he had never faced before. Going into the thick jungles of Vietnam would be a new experience for him and the US Army. The Pentagon used Moore as their "Guinea Pig" to test the enemys strengths and weaknesses. Moore was a highly educated man, as the film showed, graduating from WestPoint and attending Harvard. He was experienced in warfare and was big on discipline and training, which the film depicted as well. Moore believed he should be the first on and the last one off the battlefield. Wallace made sure this was well known. In conclusion, although many main points are altered to satisfy the American people, Wallace does a good job of bringing a lot of history and truth into this Hollywood motion picture. Thus showing the American people some of the things that occurred overseas while protecting our freedom.

Please note that this sample paper on We Were Soldiers is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on We Were Soldiers, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on We Were Soldiers will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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