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Just as a caption in a book is the text under a picture, captions on video are text located somewhere on the picture. Since there is no way for a television to put text outside the area of the picture tube, captions do end up covering a portion of the picture (there are non-broadcast applications where this can be done). CLOSED captions are captions that are hidden in the video signal, invisible without a special decoder. The place they are hidden is called line 1 of the vertical blanking interval (VBI). OPEN captions are captions that have been decoded, so they have become an integral part of the television picture, like subtitles in a movie. In other words, open captions cannot be turned off. The term open captions is also used to refer to subtitles created with a character generator.How can I see closed captions on my television?There are two ways to accomplish this by using an external decoder, or by using a television with a decoder built in. External decoders are available from several sources, and a law in the United States called the Television Decoder Circuitry Act of 10 mandates that since July 1, all televisions manufactured for sale in the U.S. must contain a built-in caption decoder if the picture tube is 1 or larger. All decoders in North America are Line 1 decoders, named for the place where the captions are encoded. Can I get captions with cable TV?Absolutely. Since the caption data is hidden in the picture, it will reach you no matter how the TV signal gets to your set. There are problems from time-to-time with delivery of captions on the lower-budget cable systems, however. Much of this comes from the use of equipment that either cleans up or compresses the television signal, losing the VBI (where the captions are carried) when it is done.Cable TV companies are, however, required by the FCC to maintain captioning information. If you see a show through cable that you know to have captions, and the captions arent coming through for you, contact the cable TV company and remind them of this!Can I get captions from a satellite dish?Yes. Just like with cable TV, the caption data is hidden in the picture, it will reach you no matter how the TV signal gets to your set. This is true both of the big dishes used for traditional analog satellite broadcasts, and the DSS (Digital Satellite Service) dishes used by companies like USSB and DirecTV. What are CC1 and CC?Decoders were originally designed to allow for captioning in more than one language, although we dont see much of it (60 Minutes, which is captioned in English and Spanish, is an exception). Line 1, where the captions are carried, is split into two fields. Field one carries two caption channels, CC1 and CC. Field two carries the other two, CC and CC4. Who do I talk to if I want my favorite show to be captioned?If your favorite show doesnt have captions, and youd like it to, your first step is to find out who produces it. If it is a national show, it will be more effective to contact the network and/or the production company than to contact your local television station, although it never hurts to do both. In either case, ask for the public relations department first. If they cant take care of you, they can always direct you to someone who can. If you are attempting to start a large-scale lobbying effort to get captions on a show, make sure you have facts and figures before you contact the station. Be prepared to tell them how many deaf and hard-of-hearing viewers there are in the area, which of their advertisers have captioning, and what their competitors are doing in that time slot. See if there are any applicable laws mandating captioning. You can even track down captioning firms and provide the station with their names and phone numbers (make sure to provide more than one, or it will look like the captioning firm is orchestrating your efforts). Petitions are highly effective as well. How many people have televisions with caption decoders? As of July 1, when the Television Decoder Circuitry Act took effect, roughly 500,000 standalone decoders had been sold (almost all from NCI), and roughly 1,000,000 televisions with caption decoders (mostly from Zenith). Since that date, roughly 0,000,000 televisions per year are being sold with caption decoders in them. That would indicate that there are close to 150,000,000 TVs with decoders in North America (as of early 001). That number, of course, doesnt take replacement televisions into account, so the actual number is probably lower.The Caption Center predicted that every home in the United States would have a caption-capable television set by the year 000. Were certainly not there yet, but were mighty close.Where do captions come from?Captions can be placed on a video signal in one of two ways Online (live) or Offline (post-production). Online captioning is done as an event occurs. Examples of online captioning are television news shows, live seminars, and sports events. Online captions can be done from a script, or actually created in real-time (see the next question). Offline captioning is done after the fact, in a studio. Examples of offline captioning include television game shows, videotapes of movies, and corporate videotapes (e.g., training videos). The text of the captions is created on a computer, and synchronized to the video using time codes. They are then transferred to the videotape before it is broadcast or distributed. Why are there different icons to denote captioned programs? You will often see an icon in the corner of the screen at the beginning of a captioned program, but not all shows use the same one for trademark reasons. The CC (with or without the rounded rectangle surrounding it) is a generic icon, which can be used by any company. Camera-ready artwork for this icon is available from the Caption Center and from VITAC. This icon, which looks like a comic strip's speech balloon (a rounded rectangle with a small "tail" protruding below) is a registered mark of the National Captioning Institute (NCI), and is only used for productions that are captioned by NCI. Other icons are used for captioning in other countries and other languages as well. There is, for example, a new icon being used for Spanish-language captioning in Puerto Rico. What does the ADA say about captioning? The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifically mandates that all government-funded public service announcements must be captioned. That is about the end of the specific mention of captioning. There are a lot of implied requirements, however, which are yet to be tested in court, despite the fact that the ADA was enacted in 1. There is some question regarding captioning of things like City Council meetings.When will all U.S. television programming have to be captioned?All new (aired for the first time on or after 1/1/18) video programming must be captioned by 1/1/006. This is a phase-in, requiring 5% of programming by 1/1/000, 50% by 1/1/00, and 75% by 1/1/004. For old programming (aired for the first time before 1/1/18), 0% must be captioned by 1/1/00, and 75% by 1/1/008. With Spanish-language programming, the deadline is 010 for new programming and 01 for old programming. Why do captions sometimes jump around the screen?Caption placement is a tricky part of captioning. The location of the captions can indicate who is speaking, and they also move around to keep from covering important information. Why is captioning almost always in uppercase (capitals)?
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Numerous studies have shown that mixed-case text is easier to read than all uppercase. Virtually all captioning in North America is done in uppercase only, however, because the resolution of the caption decoders caused some pretty ugly lowercase letters. For example, there are no descenders available for the lowercase i, j, g, q, and y. This means that these letters are pushed up on the line relative to the other letters, making it harder to read. Mixed-case text is often used to indicate whispering, and is also often used for text that needs to be set apart, such as comments by an off-screen announcer (voice-over), or sound effects. Why do the captions not always match the audio?There are several possible reasons for captions that dont match the audio portion of a program Intentional editing Childrens programs such as Sesame Street or Barney target audiences that dont have well-developed reading skills. The captions are edited down to a reading level that these audiences should be able to follow (usually about 60 words per minute). There are captioning companies that edit other programs for reading speed, which has sparked many interesting debates. Changes to the program When operating under a tight schedule, a program may go to the captioner on videotape before all of the final editing is complete. The dialog may be changed and re-dubbed after the captioning is done. This can lead to captions for dialog that doesnt match, or even doesnt exist in the final tape. Why are there sometimes typos in the captions?Like anything done by a human being, real-time captioning often produces the equivalent of typos. Unlike normal typing, however, steno-captioners can write entire words or phrases with a single hand motion (known as a stroke). A mis-stroke, therefore, wont be an incorrect or missing letter, but can be entirely different words or phrases. A good real-time captioner can work to an accuracy level of better than %, but that does still lead to a couple of mis-strokes per minute. What are those funny white squares I sometimes see?When there are problems with reception, the caption decoder may not be able to retrieve the captions correctly from the VBI of the television picture. That can cause garbled or dropped letters. If the decoder receives something that it interprets as invalid, it will often display it as a solid white square (blob). There is a backspace command on newer decoders that displays on some older decoders as a white square as well. How are real-time captions generated? Real-time captions are performed by steno-captioners, who are court reporters with special training. They use a special keyboard (called a steno keyboard or shorthand machine) to write what they hear as they hear it. Unlike a traditional QWERTY keyboard, a steno keyboard allows more than one key to be pressed at a time. The basic concept behind machine shorthand is phonetic, where combinations of keys represent sounds, but the actual theory used is much more complex than straight phonics. Steno-captioners are capable of writing at speeds of up to 50 words per minute, or even faster in short bursts. The steno then goes into a computer system, where it is translated into text and commands. The captioning software on the computer formats that stream of text into captions, and sends it to a caption encoder. This can be done either directly, or over the telephone using modems. Can captioners replace sign interpreters at live events?Certainly not. Captioners and sign interpreters address two different groups of people. Prelingually deaf (or culturally Deaf) people have sign language (usually ASL) as their first language. English came later. They will be much more comfortable with an interpreter, and their comprehension level will be higher. For someone accustomed to ASL, English is quite limited in its expression, and written English is very dry. Additionally, a Deaf person who has spent most of their life communicating in ASL may not have developed the reading speed necessary to follow captions in real-time. Postlingually deaf people (or late-deafened adults) learned English before they learned to sign, if they learned to sign at all. For these people, captions will provide a far greater comprehension level. Of the deaf and hard of hearing population in the United States, roughly 10% actually know sign language. Captions benefit the rest. Each method of communication has its strengths. For example, in a speech with heavy use of proper names and specialty terminology, it may be easier to follow captions than a frantically finger spelling sign interpreter. The maximum flow of information and comprehension will occur when sign interpreters and captioners work together at the event. What skills do I need for real-time captioning?You need to be able to write real-time at speeds well in excess of 5 words per minute, with a total error rate (TER) of under 1.5% to get started. You should have extensive training, on your own and through seminars, to be able to write steno in ways that will differentiate homophones, synonyms, and unfamiliar words, at high speeds and with precision. The National Court Reporters Association CRR (Certified Real-time Reporter) exam is a good start to see if you have the necessary speed and accuracy, even though it tests to a 4.0% TER rather than a 1.5%. Vocabulary is critical. You must have a well-developed court reporting dictionary, containing all of the specialty terminology for whatever you will be captioning, plus general terms that might come up. Focus heavily on geopolitical terminology. The following is an abbreviated (yes, abbreviated) copy of what should be in an American news captioners dictionary, courtesy of Patty White and Kevin Daniel U.S. Presidents (past and present and potential), First Ladies, Cabinet Members, U.S. Senate, U.S. House of Representatives, National figures (government, religious, entertainment, criminal...), All the countries in the world and their capitals, All the states in the U.S. and their capitals, All other major U.S. cities and not so major U.S. Cities, Geographical information, like mountain ranges, mountain peaks, oceans, rivers, lakes, local creeks, Meteorological terms, weather terms. World leaders, including United Nations leaders, World history terminology, like Tet Offensive, Bolsheviks, Chairman Mao, Major wars, domestic and international, Terms related to world organizations, like NATO, OPEC, etc., Nationalities, and the languages of foreign nations, Supreme Court Justices and important SCOTUS decisions, Military leaders, Joint Chiefs of Staff, military bases, weapons of war, like A-10 tank killers, F-15s, AWACS, Tomahawk missiles, Scud, etc., National Parks, Colleges and Universities and their team names, Local stuff for the area you plan to caption in, landmarks, hospitals, junior colleges, prominent people, etc., All the professional sports teams and their nicknames, players and coaches, Sports terminology, awards, and organizations, both amateur and professional, Makes and models of automobiles, Major businesses, brand names, stock terms and trading organizations, Currencies and major banks around the world, All the colors and their shades and hues, Dog and cat breeds, Foods and their measurements and spices that go in them, Holidays, Christian, Jewish and all other faiths, Special events, like Kwanzaa, Cinco de Mayo, etc., Religious structures, like mosque, temple, etc., Books of the Bible and religions around the world, Basic chemicals, Drug names and manufacturers, both legal and illegal, Common first and last names, World literature, philosophy and religious terms, like Aesop, orthodox, Buddhism, Eucharist, the Brothers Grimm, etc., Political terms, like Glasnost, apartheid, anarchy, propaganda, caucus, expatriate, Kremlin, Parliament, etc., Computer terms, Idioms, like adieu, aloha, de rigueur, fait accompli, modus operandi, etc. How does a real-time captioner handle obscenities?Another issue facing the captioner is curse words. As a general rule of thumb, if the word is in the sound track, it should be in the captions as well. If the producer chooses to bleep the sound track, then bleep the captions, too. Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing viewers should get the same content as hearing viewers.These obscene words must be in the dictionary, because they will come up sooner or later, but they must be carefully defined so that it is virtually impossible to stroke one by accident. One common approach used by a number of captioners is to place the words in the dictionary with an asterisk in the middle of the steno stroke. Beware, though if you remove the word from the dictionary entirely, todays sophisticated phonetic translation systems may produce it anyway if you write it by accident. Put the phonetic way of writing the word in your dictionary as a NULL translation so that if you hit it by accident nothing comes out.Youll need a bleep stroke as well, for when the audio is actually censored.How do I get started in the real-time captioning business?The best way to get started is just like any other business Start calling the leading companies in the field (and the local companies) and see whos hiring. You can also start by working with local chapters of organizations like the Association of Late-Deafened Adults (ALDA), Self-Help for Hard of Hearing People (SHHH), the National Association for the Deaf (NAD), the Alexander Graham Bell Society, and others that may need your services. They pay wont be as good, but the satisfaction level is high. Sometimes the major companies hire people with little or no training under internships or on-the-job-training programs, but theres no substitute for having a little bit of experience behind you. Practice on the kind of material you want to caption, and offer to demonstrate your skills. If you are planning to do work for the television news industry, get to know the business and the terminology before you approach anybody. Make sure your equipment is in place and that you know how to use it. Certification is not required, but is a good thing to have.
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