On the Road and the Beat Generation

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On The Road and the Beat GenerationThroughout the twentieth century, we have been witness to several movements which have helped to shape the face of American culture. From the beats, to the hippies and the punks of the seventies and eighties, these movements have modified the way we, as Americans, think and behave. "World War II marked a wide dividing line between the old and the new in American society and the nation's literature" (Zeleny 47). When the war was over the whole nation came to witness the times when nearly every young man was doing things in a similar pattern that included getting a job, starting a family, etc. The American nation was gradually turning into a nation of consumers whose outlook did not reach out too far beyond the scope of their every day routine. This type of life style found it's fierce opponents in society who initiated the notorious Beat movement. By using various literary techniques, along with non-conformist lifestyles as a basis for their writing, the beats were able to stir things up and shock society. They stormed and looted the impenetrable stronghold of serious literature. The beat generation opened up the eyes of the world to the unconventional, and by doing so, made its mark as the most significant literary movement of this century. "Likewise, the Beat Generation not only rejected the established order, but in turning to a more distant past, sought values that were radical and primitive" (Hart 5). This perspective was present in poetry and literature through out the beat movement. Beat was originally used to describe Kerouac's close network of friends, consisting mainly of artists, writers, and criminals. Only later did it represent an entire movement. "Kerouac felt the word beat represented the notion that he, along with his friends, were beaten down by the government, beaten down by the police, beaten down by any and all controlling institutions, and for a while, beaten down from the literary world. Kerouac, Ginsberg, and Burroughs all sustained the desire to keep the beat, to celebrate the true

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spirit of the lower class, which to them, happens to be the real beat generation" (Charters 6).The beats wrote literature and poetry, it was here where they began to experiment with new writing styles, and new ways of living life. These new experimental methods pressed the notion of freedom to a new limit while, breaking societies hold on what freedom is suppose to mean. The beats engaged in escapades that included crime, hedonistic parties, and mind-altering drugs. It was the perfect combination of non-conformist desires to live life to its fullest, along with brilliance in writing that made the writers of the beat generation eye-catching to the public. Everywhere they went they rejoiced in the splendor of life nature, writing, art, and experience.The two artists who might pretend to be counted as symbols of the Beat era are Kerouac and Burroughs. Although the two were prominent and defining members of the beat movement, they oddly enough did not have much in common. "His style like his message represents an outcry for individuality. Just as he rejects the contemporary emphasis on set formulas to explain life, so does he reject the restraints and conventions of the literary and intellectual world…"(Jones 5-). It was during his life experiences, whether it was binge drinking, wild sex, or lunacy on the road, where he attempted to quench his desire to find himself, and in the process hoped to eradicate his personal loneliness."Written in Kerouac's unique emotion-driven writing, On the Road portrays the mind-set of the beat era and brings to life the adventures of the most realistic beat of all, Jack Kerouac. The book stirs the soul with its constant poetic flow and can be related to, by anyone" (Cassady 78). Like most of Kerouac's writings, On the Road is based on the adventures he had, continually roaming about the United States in the late 140's. Overall, On the Road is a fresh and captivating novel, which follows the life of Sal Paradise. His journeys become a quest for new experiences and a new way of living, crossing both moral and legal boundaries in search for true freedom. Kerouac uses many techniques to attempt to convey the theme of personal freedom as well as to achieve freedom of expression. He applies an original, spontaneous style of writing to his novels, which helps him to convey his themes. His brilliant use of imagery and his vibrant characterizations also allows him to easily express his feelings and ideas in a way that could not have been achieved otherwise. Kerouac is the narrator in the novel and disguises himself under the alias of Sal Paradise. The characters he encounters, the situations in which he is involved, the scenery he passes are all described with incredible clarity, sharpness and plausibility. Riding with farmhands, hitchhiking with "Eddie", and partying in Wyoming are just a few of the high points that lead Sal to Denver, where he hopes to catch up with his old friend Dean Moriarty. As the novel moves into part two, the novel becomes something of a grab bag. Kerouac continually tries to describe the scenery in the various states he and Dean pass through in Dean's car. Often, he does a wonderful job. His intricate descriptions of the places where they stopped to eat and get gas, the hitchhikers they pick up, and the run ins with the police all seem credible. But, there is a noticeable drop in the amount of action, and this causes quite a letdown from the once great energy that was poured out in part one. However, while the details may seem plausible at some points, there are many times when Kerouac, instead of giving glib, vivid portrayals, seems to be rushing through the scenes,such as the section where Dean and Sal stay with the female coal truck driver, Frankie, and her poetic thirteen year old daughter. At other points, Kerouac becomes a rambling and emotional fool. There are other times, when he allows himself to begin speaking in spiritualist mumbo jumbo as when he is attempting to describe an out of body experience while going mad with hunger. I don't believe there has ever been any other writer in this century that loved America; the green and golden rolling hills, the copiousness, the enthusiasm, the sheer idea of America, more than Jack Kerouac. This book is not for everyone, but this book is to be experienced by those who seek something other than the everyday life they are used to living. While this book doesn't provide all the answers to living, it does remind us that it is worth going out and looking for those answers; the search is as important as whatever truth we eventually find. Kerouac creates a rushing, boundless novel whose energy is inspiring and infectious. After reading this book I reflected upon my own experiences traveling across America, with its truck stop lunch meals, innocent cornfield countryside's and stories too good, only Jack Kerouac would be bold enough to write about. While most autobiographies are arrogant and pretentious, I felt that he escaped that mold, and gave America a look into the truth.Throughout the novel there is one clear tendency that is evident to the reader- Jack's nearly maniacal desire to flee, to escape something that seems to suffocate his spirits. To fulfill his desire to escape thus establishing an ultimate authority of personal freedom, Jack uses any means that he sees fit, and the means he chooses are not necessarily good. Trying to escape from reality, Kerouac chose to mentally alter his perception of the world through constant drinking and drugs. To Kerouac, his life looked fairly good as long as he was under the influence of alcohol. "He was beginning to drink heavily, and to drink whiskey and gin instead of just beer" (Nicosia 6). Certainly, this was not the best way to handle his inner struggle for freedom. Keroauc's desire to rise above the mental slavery he felt inside was more important to him than anything else. One aspect of On the Road, which allows Kerouac to express the theme of personal freedom, is the use of spontaneous method of writing. This method creates a free flowing rhythm and structure, which emphasizes the theme of personal freedom due to its loose style and ability to capture the true feelings of the author as he writes. Kerouac used this original style in order to subconsciously express the thoughts of the mind in a continually flowing way without the constraints of the traditional rules of writing. Text written in this original way effectively conveys the emotion and energy of the author as well as allowing the reader to empathize greatly with the story. On the Road is written entirely using the "spontaneous prose" technique. An example of this is the final paragraph in the novel. It contains only one long sentence separated by many commas and conveys the natural spontaneous thoughts of the main character, Sal Paradise, as he thinks of his old friend, Dean Moriarty"So in America when the sun goes down and I sit on the old-broken down river pier watching the long, long skies over new New Jersey and sense all that raw land that rolls in one bulge over to the West Coast, and all that road going...all the people dreaming in the immensity of it...and tonight the stars'll be out, and don't you know that God is Pooh Bear? The evening star must be drooping and shedding her sparkler dims over the prairie, which is just before the coming of complete night that blesses the earth, darkens the rivers, cups the peaks and folds the final shore in, and nobody, nobody knows what's going to happen to anybody beside the forlorn rags of growing old, I think of Dean Moriarty..." (Kerouac 07). This extract effectively conveys the sincerity of the characters feelings and shows how well Jack Kerouac's technique can portray free, spontaneous thought. For Kerouac, it seems as though jazz is the ideal model for complete spontaneity. Kerouac uses the term "blowing" instead of playing in his analogy of writing and jazz and the distinction is an important one. "Playing" is a more involved thought process whereas "blowing" implies a more direct, more emotional style of play. "Kerouac was the first writer I ever met who heard his own writing, who listened to his own sentences as if they were musical, rhythmical constructions, and who could follow the sequence of sentences that make up paragraph as if he were listening to a little jazz riff…." (Ginsberg 151-60).This shows us how Kerouac uses language to parallel the playing of a Jazz musician. He also skillfully uses rhythm to portray the intensity of the performance and the citation shows how he was interested in the flowing of words, often rejecting the general rules of writing in order to have complete freedom in his novels. It is because of this that Kerouac can sincerely portray personal freedom and he has achieved the freedom of expression that he could not have achieved by writing in any other way.Another aspect of Kerouac's style, which allows him to express the theme of personal freedom, is his use of imagery to create a detailed portrayal of every situation. The main contributor to this imagery is Kerouac's extensive, though necessary, detailed description, which brings every situation to life and effectively conveys the feelings of Sal Paradise throughout the novel. Kerouac's brilliant descriptive ability is shown when the main character makes a trip to Mexico. He describes how exposed Sal Paradise is to his new surrounding world and deeply portrays Sal's feelings of this new experience"Lying on the top of the car with my face to the black sky was like lying in a closed trunk on a summer night. For the first time in my life the weather was not something that touched me, caressed me, froze me or sweated me but became me" (Spencer 68). This kind of description is showcased in many places throughout the book to let the reader know exactly how Sal is feeling through everything that is happening to him. Kerouac's stunning use of description to give the story an uncanny sense of realism, plays a major role in making the story what it is and allows him to more easily and effectively express his themes and ideas to the reader. Kerouac's remarkable use of description is again demonstrated when Sal is hitchhiking near the river Susquehanna. "We walked seven miles along the mournful Susquehanna. It is a terrifying river. It has bushy cliffs on both sides that lean like ghosts over the unknown waters. Inky nights cover all. Sometime from the rail yards across the river rises a great red locomotive flare that illuminates the horrid cliffs" (Spencer 7).This excerpt uses unusual word choice to describe the surroundings through the eyes of the main character and in turn portrays how the character feels. Kerouac describes how the cliffs "lean like ghosts" which emphasize how "terrifying" the river appeared to Sal Paradise. Jack Kerouac uses Sal's perceptions of the country to show how he is feeling at a certain point. During his travels, he is quite miserable knowing that he has many miles to travel and says how much he wanted to get home. Kerouac often uses nature to express the feelings of his characters and he portrays the theme of personal freedom through this relationship between nature and freedom.Another interesting aspect of "On the Road" is characterization. This ismainly because all of the characters in the novel are based on Kerouac's real life friends and their own real life experiences. Sal, for example, is Kerouac's alter ego, which explains how the story is told from such a realistic, first hand point of view. Since Kerouac was able to know all of his characters so well, he was therefore able to write beautiful, descriptive characterizations and let the readers know all of the characters like he knew his friends. The rich characterization, due to its basis on real life people gives the story a friendly and familiar feeling which contributes to the novels overall eminence. The realistic portrayal of characters allows Kerouac to express his themes more effectively, using his characters as a medium to do so. Dean Moriarty, for example, represents the rawness of America and is perhaps the most important character in the novel. Kerouac wanted Dean to represent people's cravings for new experiences and he wanted Dean to be the embodiment of the old wild west. Dean's importance is hinted at in the very first chapter of the novel. He is the first character who is introduced and is portrayed by the main character as being full of life. "He was simply a youth tremendously excited with life, and though he was a conman, he was only conning because he wanted so much to live and get involved with people who would otherwise pay no intention to him" (Kerouac 4). This citation effectively portrays the kind of attitude Dean Moriarty had towards life and also introduces the innocence of Dean. The extract is also an indication to what may happen to him later on in the novel and hints at the chaotic and anarchic life that he leads. Dean is the catalyst for Sal's cravings, which shows the importance and the magnetism that he possesses. Kerouac also uses Dean Moriarty to express the idea that, although it is important to try anything to find personal freedom, one must mature and settle down in order to find true freedom. This idea is portrayed as the novel progresses. Every one in the book gets tired of Dean at one point or another and even Sal has to realize that he cannot depend on Dean to stick with him when he's sick and miserable in Mexico. The joyrides get progressively less joyful which suggests that people cannot ride on forever, going from one adventure to the next.In my honest opinion, On the Road can be truly considered to be an ingenious novel, which successfully conveys Jack Kerouac's concept of freedom to the reader. His original style of writing helps him to effectively portray his ideas of personal freedom in a more sincere way than if the novel had followed the standard rules of writing. The techniques employed by Kerouac allows the reader to empathize greatly with the novel. One might argue whether or not Kerouac's perception of the world was reasonable in terms of his deeds. One can hardly claim that Kerouac's way of living should be accepted as normal for those who have a hard time trying to adjust to social conventions and everyday routine. However, On The Road gives the reader a valuable perspective on the alternative way of perception in life, which cannot and should not be neglected.Wouldnt you like to get away?Give yourself up to the allure ofCatcher In The RyeThe futures swathed in Stars and StripesWouldnt you like to get away?Kerouacs beckoning with open arms,And open roads of eucalyptusWestward bound (Belle and Sebastian )

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Self-Growth

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Without question I am a better student today then I was when I entered university three years ago. However, when I started the self-growth project I felt there was still one major academic area with room for improvement and so I decided to change the way I studied for and wrote exams. During a three-week period filled with midterms, I implemented a plan and experimented with several strategies that were directed towards limiting stress, anxiety and nervousness during the exam period. A brief description of my reasoning behind selecting test taking as my area of improvement will be explained. Likewise, the overview of my plan and my strategies, the refinements I made to each strategy, my response to interview question written by Terry Orlick, and my completed planning forms, will also be detailed.Success as a student is related to commitment, dedication, and enjoyment but everything comes down to the empirical characteristic, grades. Students need good grades to continue their education. Academic success is vital to be able to reach my ultimate goal of studying medicine. I decided to choose test-taking skills as my area of improvement because I wanted to develop a plan to limit my anxiety and nervousness during an exam period. Anxiety affects my attention and I often make careless mistakes on test that easily could have been avoided had I remained calm. My plan to improve my test-taking skills concentrated on issues that I have always recognized as areas for improvement but never really had the motivation for critical assessment. The personal self-growth project provided the motivation to assess these areas and as a result I developed several initial conclusions. First, when I study, time is not a variable and I can take all the time in the world to answer a question. What often happens is that I become distracted and my mind wonders but I still end up answering the question. During an exam, time is an important variable and there is no time for distracting thoughts. Every time my mind wonders during an exam I get anxious because I am aware that I have time constrictions. This leads to a positive feedback loop where anxiety causes more distracting thoughts and distracting thoughts lead to more anxiety. My strategy to help fight my battle against the positive feedback loop of anxiety was to implement a time variable during my study periods.The second area of attention was to change the way I wrote an exam. Before my self-growth plan my strategy towards test taking was to go through an exam very quickly skipping questions that required in depth thought and I only answered the easy questions. I would then go over the test a second time to answer the hard questions. My reasoning was that if I eliminated all the easy questions I could manage my time more efficiently between the hard questions. In my first midterm I implemented my first strategy described in the above paragraph but continued with my pre-self-growth test taking method. When I receive the midterm back I looked it over and I noticed that the questions that I skipped the first time through because I labeled them as hard where in fact not so hard. Some of the questions I labeled as easy were done incorrectly because I did not take the time to really think about what the questions were asking. Instead of improving my time management, what was in fact happening was that I was not thoroughly reading through the questions as I was trying to rush. This caused several problems. The more questions labeled hard the more anxious I became. Questions labeled easy were sometimes not easy and were often answered incorrectly. My second strategy that I implemented during my second midterm was to slow down. I read through every question twice and took the time to really think about what the questions were asking. Results to the implementation of my second strategy will be discussed in more detail later in the paper.

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My third strategy was also linked to my study habits. In my pre-self-growth project study method I learned visually by reading over my textbook and my notes and highlighting important material. By learning this way I very rarely wrote my thoughts down on paper. For example, if a professor handed out practice questions I would look at the questions and answer them in my head. However, when it came time for an exam and I was required to write my thoughts down I would often draw a blank. I found I would understand the question and the material but I would not know how to format my answer on paper. It took the motivation of the self-growth project to change my study method because even though I understood and realized problems existed I had become so comfortable with my habits that they were hard to break. My strategy to eliminate the problem of drawing blanks was to allot more study time and to take the time to write my thoughts down on paper. This strategy was probably the easiest to arrive at but the results, as I will discuss later, were outstanding.In the section titled mission to excellence interview in Terry Orlick's book called In Pursuit of excellence, he proposed several questions most of which I answered. Terry's questions and my answers were the following 1.What is your target for improvement? I would like to improve my test taking ability. .What are you doing that you don't want to do? What would you like to change make better? I find no matter how much I study for a test I always get nervous consequently what often happens is that I miss read questions or miss something the teacher says during the exam period and I end up performing under my potential. I would like to change my attitude so that I do not become nervous. I would also like to be able to write an exam without becoming overly concerned and anxious about time restrictions..Where, when, and under what circumstances is the greatest need or challenge for change or improvement? In what situation does the problem usually come up? What kinds of demands or expectations are being placed on you at that time? What are you thinking, feeling, or focusing on? The greatest need for change is during midterm or exam periods because this is where I often find I become nervous and make most of my mistakes. I want to go to medical school and I understand to achieve this I need to do exceptionally well academically. I put so much pressure on myself that I expect near perfection on every test. Often during an exam I am faced with a tough question that I don't know immediately. At this point I get nervous, my mind starts to wander and I think "Oh no! What happens if I get this wrong?" I focus too much on "what ifs"? I need to train myself to maintain total focus when I face a situation where I do not immediately understand a question and I need to focus on my present situation rather than contemplating the future.4. How important is it for you to improve your reaction or performance in this target area? It is very important for me to improve my test taking performance because I need to succeed academically to become accepted to medical school. Medical school has been a dream of mine for as long as I can remember and so I want to reach my full potential as a student because in the future I never want to be able look back at my present situation and think I did not give it my all. 5.Think about the times when you have been in this situation and your focus, response, or performance has been at its best. What was going on then? What were you doing or saying to yourself? What were you focused on? During second semester midterms last year I never once became nervous. I went into every exam feeling confident almost to the point of being too confident. I remember having total focus, never thinking how the exams could affect my application to medical school. I really don't remember anything being different but I do remember being totally focused on doing my best. 6.What about the times when your response or performance seemed at its worst? What was going on them? What were you doing or saying to yourself? Where was your focus? During final exams last year, rather than reacting positively to conflict, as I did during midterms, I became nervous and made mistakes. I miss-read questions, left questions worth the most marks to the last minute and changed correct answers to incorrect answers at the last minute. During midterms every last minute change was from wrong to right while during final exams the opposite was true. Again, I cannot remember anything being different from the ordinary and I was still as focused as I was during midterms. However, I remember being slightly more nervous as I knew I had to perform as well as I did on my midterms. This leads me to think my level of performance probably had a lot to do with my study habits being ill designed.7. What seems to be the major difference between your best and less than best responses, experiences, or performances? The differences between my best and less than best performance were the followingBefore the midterms examinations I had no expectations. I did not have anything I could compare to and I put less pressure on myself. However, doing well on my midterms created high expectations so even before entering the finals examination room I felt pressure to live up to my own past success. I also feel that my method of studying was not consistent and possibly could have caused a variation in examination performance levels. 8. What do you think you can do to improve the situation, your response to it, or your performance within the situation? I feel I have to change the way I study by applying a time restriction when I attempt to answer a homework question. This will simulate the same time pressured environment that I encounter during a test. I also feel I need to change my study habits by taking my time to write things down instead of just running questions through my head and assuming I will be able to figure it out on a test. The last strategy for change is that I feel I should change the way I write tests. Instead of rushing through the test the first time through I will take my time and re-read every question no matter how simple is sounds. I implemented my plan to improve my test taking skills over a three-week period that had me writing 4 midterms. For the first three exams I implemented a new strategy by itself and then reflected on its effectiveness. Subsequently I created refinements to each individual strategy. During my study period that lead up to the fourth midterm I implemented all three refined strategies and then made a final conclusion on whether I thought I had been effective in stimulating personal self-growth. In my first midterm I implemented a strategy that changed the way I studied. During my study period I created a time variable simulating the stress of time restriction during an exam period. I implemented this strategy to study for my first exam hoping that I would become more comfortable with time limits and in turn become more relaxed come exam time. I only placed a time limit on myself when I was answering a question from my textbook, I did not place a time limit when I was reading through my notes or my textbook. After my first midterm I assessed my feelings about the effectiveness of this strategy and decided on a few refinements. Overall, the change did very little to limit stress. I found I was still conscious of spending to much time on each individual question. I decided that instead of a time limit to each single question during my study time I would be better off to set a time limit to a group of questions. I hoped that this change to my strategy would more closely simulate the time constriction faced during an exam. I implemented this refined version of strategy one along with the refined version of all the other strategies as I studied for my forth midterm and the results will be discussed later on in the paper. During my second midterm I used my second strategy that required me to take my time writing the midterm instead of my old method of going through the test fast. After the exam I reflected on how much of a difference the second strategy created. Not only did I not misinterpret any questions, I became more relaxed. As I answered a question I only thought about that specific question not about how I had to hurry up and move on to the next. I had a greater degree of concentration because my thoughts did not drift. However, because I took my time I did not leave myself much time for the final questions. As it turned out the last few questions were not difficult but had they been difficult my opinion of my second strategy might have been different. I decided to make a slight alteration to my second strategy. I did not change the idea of taking my time but I decided to add a time limit to each question during the exam period. For example if the exam period was 0 minutes long and there where questions I would spend a maximum of ten minutes on a question before moving on to the next. Similar to my first strategy I implemented the refined version of strategy two during my fourth exam. My third strategy, like my first, required a change in my study methods. Instead of doing most of my studying visually by reading and remembering I decided to change to a more active kinesthetic study method, where I would write my thoughts down. With my new strategy I had to increase my study time because it was a much slower method of learning. My rational for my third strategy was that if I practiced writing my thoughts down they would be more organized and so on a test I would be better able to write a well formatted answer. Of all three strategies this was the easiest to think of but the hardest to implement because I had become so accustomed to my old method of studying. Without the motivation provided by the self-growth project I would have never actually used strategy three because it required a lot of change and a lot more energy. It was a much more active way to learn as opposed to my old passive visual learning method. As I began to write my third midterm I immediately recognized a difference. My answers were clear and precise and the time it took me to answer each question was also decreased. As a result I was more confident and less anxious about time restrictions. I left that midterm feeling dumbfounded as to why I had never taken the time to study using a more active kinesthetic approach before. Implementing strategy three was the greatest change to my study habits that I have done since I entered university. I understand people learn differently but to those who struggle when trying to write answers to questions, even though they understand the material, as I did. I would definitely recommend attempting a more active approach to studying, in spite of this taking more time and effort. I did not feel I had to make any refinements to strategy three because it was so effective at generating a positive change.The fact that all of the midterms covered different material and each had its own distinct degree of difficulty made it impossible to determine the effect of each strategy relative to each other. However, experimenting with the different strategies did provide me with a good perception of what's useful and what's not. For my fourth and final midterm of the hectic -week period I applied all refined strategies. Again, I felt studying kinesthetically provided me with the greatest positive change and in fact it overshadowed any possible effect of strategy one because I finished the midterm with time to spare. Every time I answered a question I felt I had answered one similar to it at home and all my answers were direct and to the point. Applying a time variable to my study period helped me study more efficiently and as a result; although, I can't say if strategy one helped me write my exam more efficiently, I can definitely say that strategy one was of use during study time. By recommending a slower speed to test taking strategy two fit nicely as a compliment to studying kinesthetically. Not only were my answers formatted better I was also able to concentrate more on each question. Overall, I benefited from the personal self-growth project because I have developed some very important strategies that will help me academically in the future. Also, during the -week experiment I, beyond doubt, grew as a student.In conclusion, my experiences with the self-growth project were generally positive. With the exception of a little added stress during an already stressful midterm period the self-growth project provided me with valuable tools to increase my test taking ability. I developed three strategies changing my study methods and my test taking ability. After implementing each strategy I made refinements and then implemented all three refined strategies before writing my fourth midterm. Overall, all three strategies proved to be positive; however, the improvements caused by changing my study method from a visual to a kinesthetic were incredible. I will apply these refined strategies for future examinations and I hope they will help me reach my ultimate goal of studying medicine.

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Courtship and Marriage Study Guide

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Chapter 15 Major Institutions 1) Family of Orgin- Family into which you are borned. ) Family of Procreation- Family that you will begin when you marry and have children.

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) Nuclear Family- You, your partner, your siblings or you, your spouse, and your children. 4) Binuclear Family- A family in which the members live in two separate households. 5) Extended Family- Not only your nuclear family but extended family as well.Structural Functionalism- Views the family as an institution with values, norms, and activities meant to provide stability for the larger society.Conflict Framework- Recognize that family members have different goals and values that result in conflict.Symbolic Interaction Framework- Marriage and families represent symbolic worlds in which the various members give meaning to each other's behavior. Looking Glass Self- The image people have of themselves is based on the reflection of what other people tell them about themselves. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy- Once people define situations and the behaviors they are expected to engage in, they are able to behave toward one another in predictable ways.Chapter Role- Beliefs about the proper role relationships between men and women in any given society.Status- A social position within a group or society.Belief- Functions-Theories of Gender Role Development- Sociobiology- A theory that emphasizes that there are biological explanations for social behavior. Social Learning Theory- Emphasizes the roles of reward and punishment in explaining how a child learns gender role behavior. Cognitive Developmental Theory- Reflects a blend of biological and social learning views.Chapter Steinberg's Triangular Elements of Love Passion Intimacy CommitmentLove Styles Ludic- Views love as a game, refuses to become dependant on any one person, and does not encourage another's intimacy. Pragma- Exhibits love that is rational and logical. Does not become involved in interracial, long-distance, or age discrepant partners because logic argues against doing so. Eros- The erotic lover is consumed by passion and romance. Mania- A person with a mania love style feels intense emotion and sexual passion but is out of control. Storage- A calm, soothing, nonsexual love devoid of intense passion. Agape- Love that is selfless and giving, expecting nothing in return. The love parents have for their children is often described as the agape love style. Theories of Origin of Love Evolutionary Theory- Love has an evolutionary purpose by providing a bonding mechanism between the parents during the time their offspring are dependant infants. Learning Theory- Emphasizes that love feelings develop in response to certain behaviors occurring in certain contexts. Psychosexual Theory- Love results from blocked biological sexual desires. Ego-Ideal Theory- Says that love springs from a state of dissatisfaction with oneself and represents a vain urge to reach one's "ego-ideal". Biochemical Theory- Emphasizes that hormones and chemicals are an important basis for love. Attachment Theory- Emphasizes that a primary motivation in life is to be connected with other people.Chapter 4Bundling- A courtship custom practiced by the Puritans. It involved the would-be groom sleeping in the girls bed in her parent's home. Both partners were to be fully clothed, and a board was placed between them.Consequences of Meeting Partner Online -Potential to fall in love quickly as a result of intense mutual disclosure. -Not being able to observe non-verbal cues/gestures. -Moving too quickly throughout the relationship (E-Mail to phone to meeting to marriage) -DeceptionTypes of Cohabitation Here and Now- Partners have an emotional/sexual relationship and want to live together because they enjoy each other. Focused on the here and now, not the future of the relationship. Testers- Involved partners who want to assess whether staying together and getting married would be right for them. Engaged- The partners are formally engaged and want to live together until the wedding. Money Savers- The partners live together primarily out of economic convenience. Separated- These are couples in which one or both partners are formally separated from previous spouses. They are living together until the divorce is final. Pension Partners- Partners are living together because marriage would result in the loss of benefits from a previous marriage. (Widow receiving SS/pension benefits.) Cohabitants Forever- Some couples view living together as a permanent alternative to marriage. Domestic Partnership- A homosexual relationship in which individuals who live together are emotionally and financially interdependent and are given some kind of official recognition by a city or corporation to receive partner benefits. Chapter 5Endogamy- Cultural expectation to select a marriage partner within one's own social group, such as race, religion, and social class.Exogamy- In mate selection, the social expectation that you will marry outside of your family group and avoid sex and marriage with a sibling or other close relative.Homogamy- In mate selection, selecting someone with similar characteristics, such as interests, values, age, race, religion, and education.Propinquity- The tendency to marry someone who lives and works in the same social context.Theories of Mate Selection Complementary Needs Theory- States that we tend to select mates whose needs are opposite and complementary to our own needs. Exchange Theory- Based on assessing who offers the greatest rewards at the lowest cost. Prin. Of Least Interest- States the the person who has the least interest in the relationship controls the relationship.Parental Characteristics- A man looks for a wife who has the similar characteristics to those of his mother and vice versa for the woman.Chapter 6 Stereotypes of Being Single Ugly Homosexual "Bitch"Single Parenting and it's Effects(face numerous challenges, including some of the following issues) Satisfaction of the emotional and disciplinary needs of the child. Satisfaction of adult emotional needs. Satisfaction of adult sexual needs. Lack of Money. Guardianship. Prenatal Care Negative life outcomes for the child. Absence of a father.How do people view themselves if asked if they are homosexual?How does religion act toward someone being gay? Most religions teach that homosexuality is sinful and prohibited by God. The Catholic Church rejects all homosexual expression.Chapter 7What is marital commitment? The intent to maintain and stay in a relationship.Cultural Differences in Marriage Chinese, Japanese, and Korean marriages are regarded less as a commitment of the spouses to each other and more as a commitment to the eldest male offspring, who marries to support the family of his parents. The wife moves into the husband's parent's home where she is expected to cook, clean, and be obedient to the wishes of her husband's parents. African-American marriages have very strong family ties. Rite of Passage- An event that marks the transition from one social status to another. Starting school, getting a drivers license, and graduating from high school or college are all examples.Chapter 8Techniques of Effective Communication1. Make communication a priority. Establish and maintain eye contact.. Ask open-ended questions.4. Use reflective listening.5. Use "I" statements.6. Avoid brutal criticism.7. Say positive things about your partner.8. Tell your partner what you want.. Stay focused on the issue.10. Make specific resolutions to disagreements.11. Give congruent messages.1. Share power.1. Keep the process of communication going.14. Fight fair.Defense Mechanisms Escapism- The simultaneous denial and withdrawal from a problem. Rationalization- The cognitive justification for one's own behavior that unconsciously conceals one's true motives. Projection- This occurs when one spouse unconsciously attributes his or her own feelings, attitudes, or desires to the partner. For example, the wife who desires to have an affair may accuse her husband of being unfaithful to her. Displacement- This involves shifting your feelings, thoughts, or behaviors from the person who evokes them onto someone else. Chapter Absolutism- Refers to a belief system based on unconditional allegiance to the authority of science, law, tradition, or religion.Relativism- This is a value system that emphasizes that decisions should be made in the context of a particular situation (hence, values are relative).Hedonism- The belief that the ultimate value and motivation for human actions lie in the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain. "If it feels good, do it."What are the behaviors associated with contracting HIV? Engaging in casual sex. Using no form of contraception.Spectatoring- It is an obstacle of sexual functioning which involves mentally observing your sexual performance and that of your partner.Chapter 10What motivates people to have children? Family Friends Religion Government Cultural ObservancesWhat are the benefits of being an only child? You get all of the attention.Reproduction Technologies Hormone Therapy- Induce ovulation Artificial Insemination- Sperm is deposited directly into the cervix. Surrogate Mother- A fertilized egg is placed in the uterus of another woman. Ovum Transfer- The sperm of a male is deposited into a surrogate mother. In Vitro Fertilization- Embryo is created in a lab using egg and sperm from a couple.Risks of taking Fertility Drugs Having twins or triplets. Different Types of Contraception Hormonal Contraceptives- The Pill, Norplant, Depo-Provera, Lunelle Once-A-Month Shot Male Condom Female Condom- Fits in the woman's vagina. Diaphragm- Inserted into the vagina, covers the cervix and prevents sperm from entering. Vaginal Spermicides Natural Family Planning- periodic abstinence, rhythm method, and fertility awareness Withdrawl and Douching Emergency Contraception Sterilization- Woman- Oophorectomy, Hysterectomy, Salpingectomy, or Laparoscopy Man- VasectomieChapter 11Postpartum Depression- A reaction more severe than the "baby blues" to the birth of one's baby, characterized by crying, irritability, loss of appetite, and difficulty in sleeping.Baby Blues- Transitory symptoms of depression twenty-four to forty-eight hours after a baby is born.Different Approaches to Child Rearing Developmental-Maturational Approach- Views what children do, think, and feel as being influenced by their genetic inheritance. Behavioral Approach- An approach to childrearing based on the principle that behavior is learned through classical and operant conditioning. Parent Effectiveness Training Approach- A model of childrearing that focuses on trying to understand what a child is feeling and experiencing it in the here and now. Socioteleological Approach- An approach to childrearing that explains children's behavior as resulting from the attempt to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Reality Therapy Approach- An approach to childrearing that emphasizes how a child's behavior is purposeful.Chapter 1What are the benefits of a dual earner marriage? Afford expensive homes, cars, vacations, and greater opportunites for their children.Second-Shift- The housework and child care that employed women do when they return home from their jobs.What is the quality of day-care today? Only 14% were rated good/excellent 74% received a rating just above the minimalRole-Compartmentalization- Separating the roles of work and home so that they do not think about or dwell on the problems of one when they are at the physical place of the other.Commodification of Leisure- The perception of free time as a consumption opportunity whereby one expects to spend money to enjoy leisure.Chapter 1Read Chapter 1 Understand abuse; when and why it occurs. Domestic Violence Child Abuse IssuesChapter 14Macro Factors Contributing to Divorce1. Egalitarian Role Perceptions. Increased Economic Independence of Women. Changing Family Functions and Structure4. Liberalized Divorce Laws5. Fewer Moral and Religious Sanctions6. More Divorce Models7. Mobility/Anonymity8. Individualistic Cultural Goal of HappinessMicro Factors Contributing to Divorce1. Negative Behavior. Lack of Conflict Resolution Skills. Value Changes4. Satiation5. Extramarital Relationship6. Perception that Being Divorced is Better than Being MarriedSatiation- the state in which a stimulus loses its value with repeated exposure.Stages of Divorce1. Pre-separation. Separation. Divorce4. PostdivorceAlternatives to Divorce1. Annulment- returns spouses to their premarital status. (Catholic Church). Separation. Desertion- walking out, disappearingChapter 15Why people remarry to include elderly/widowed. December Marriages- both are elderly. Primary motivation is to escape loneliness or the need for companionship.Boundary Maintenance- Not knowing how do deal with feelings towards ex-spouse when in a new relationship.Conflicts the affect Step-Families Learning to trust in a new relationship. Boundary maintenance with ex-spouse. Meshing finances. Relating to step-children.Chapter 16Resiliency- A family's ability to respond to a crisis in a positive way.ABC-X Model- What people use to help deal with life's problems.1. Developed realistic perspective.. Avoided blame. Sought opportunities for fun.4. Keep destructive impulses in check.5. Intervened early in a crisis.Why do people cheat? They have a strong interest in sex, permissive sexual values, low subjective satisfaction in their existing relationship, and greater sexual opportunities.1. Variety, novelty, and excitement.. Workplace friendships.. Relationship dissatisfaction.4. Revenge5. Homosexual relationship.6. Aging7. Other factors.Signs of Suicide Verbal Signs- Direct statements about suicide such as "I don't want to live anymore." Behavioral Signs- Sadness, Change in sleep patterns, Drop in grades…etc. Situational Signs- Loss of a relationship, Trouble with law or at school, pregnancy…etc.Chapter 17Ageism- The systematic prosecution and degradation of people because they are old.Gerontophobia- A fear or dread of the elderly.Generontology- The study of aging.What makes old people happy? Friendship, companionship, affection, etc.Death and Dying ProcessTHE DANCER'S GIFTIndividualism- A philosophy in which an individual's decisions and actions are based on his or her own wants and needs, rather than on the wants and needs of the group. By smoking in the car, Samantha's mother is putting her own needs first, and Samantha's health and comfort are secondary.Familism- A philosophy in which an individuals decisions and actions are based on the wants and needs of the gamily or other social group, rather than on the individual.Personalism- Interested only in helping out one's own self.Ethnocentrism- The practice of viewing one's own culture as "normal" and superior and viewing other cultures as "weird" or inferior. Marcel feels this way about the behaviors exhibited in America contrast to those in Martinique.Organic Solidarity- Mechanical SolidarityPrejudice- Negative attitudes and feelings toward an entire category of people.Discrimination- Unequal treatment of individuals because of their group membership. Not treated fairly.Power Elite- A small, powerful group of people existing influence on the affairs of a society or community. Example, US Government.Religion- A system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals involving the sacred or supernatural realm.Cult- A relatively small religious group that is considered to be extremist and is usually started by a charismatic leader. Osama bin Laden, CommunistsPolyandry- A form of polygamy in which one wife has or more husbands.Polygyny- A form of polygamy in which one husband has or more wives.Crime- DevianceProtestant Ethic- A belief system that emphasizes the importance of hard work and achievement.Latent Functions- A consequence or outcome that is unintended and not commonly recognized. Latent Functions of college include meeting new friends and possibly a life partner.Manifest Functions- A consequence or outcome that is intended and commonly recognized. College is necessary to get ahead in the work force.Total Institution- An organization in which people are isolated from the rest of society and are under the control of the organizations staff and administration. Examples are prisons and mental health facilities.

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History of Computers

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History of Computer History of the Computer Industry in America America and the Computer Industry Only once in a lifetime will a new invention come about to touch every aspect of our lives. Such a device that changes the way we work, live, and play is a special one, indeed. A machine that has done all this and more now exists in nearly every business in the U.S. and one out of every two households (Hall, 156). This incredible invention is the computer. The electronic computer has been around for over a half-century, but its ancestors have been around for 000 years. However, only in the last 40 years has it changed the American society. From the first wooden abacus to the latest high-speed microprocessor, the computer has changed nearly every aspect of peoples lives for the better. The very earliest existence of the modern day computers ancestor is the abacus. These date back to almost 000 years ago. It is simply a wooden rack holding parallel wires on which beads are strung. When these beads are moved along the wire according to programming rules that the user must memorize, all ordinary arithmetic operations can be performed (Soma, 14). The next innovation in computers took place in 164 when Blaise Pascal invented the first digital calculating machine. It could only add numbers and they had to be entered by turning dials. It was designed to help Pascals father who was a tax collector (Soma, ). In the early 1800Õs, a mathematics professor named Charles Babbage designed an automatic calculation machine. It was steam powered and could store up to 1000 50-digit numbers. Built in to his machine were operations that included everything a modern general-purpose computer would need. It was programmed by--and stored data on--cards with holes punched in them, appropriately called punch cards. His inventions were failures for the most part because of the lack of precision machining techniques used at the time and the lack of demand for such a device (Soma, 46). After Babbage, people began to lose interest in computers. However, between 1850 and 100 there were great advances in mathematics and physics that began to rekindle the interest (Osborne, 45). Many of these new advances involved complex calculations and formulas that were very time consuming for human calculation. The first major use for a computer in the U.S. was during the 180 census. Two men, Herman Hollerith and James Powers, developed a new punched-card system that could automatically read information on cards without human intervention (Gulliver, 8). Since the population of the U.S. was increasing so fast, the computer was an essential tool in tabulating the totals. These advantages were noted by commercial industries and soon led to the development of improved punch-card business-machine systems by International Business Machines (IBM), Remington-Rand, Burroughs, and other corporations. By modern standards the punched-card machines were slow, typically processing from 50 to 50 cards per minute, with each card holding up to 80 digits. At the time, however, punched cards were an enormous step forward; they provided a means of input, output, and memory storage on a massive scale. For more than 50 years following their first use, punched-card machines did the bulk of the worlds business computing and a good portion of the computing work in science (Chposky, 7). By the late 10s punched-card machine techniques had become so well established and reliable that Howard Hathaway Aiken, in collaboration with engineers at IBM, undertook construction of a large automatic digital computer based on standard IBM electromechanical parts. Aikens machine, called the Harvard Mark I, handled -digit numbers and could perform all four arithmetic operations. Also, it had special built-in programs to handled logarithms and trigonometric functions. The Mark I was controlled from prepunched paper tape. Output was by card punch and electric typewriter. It was slow, requiring to 5 seconds for a multiplication, but it was fully automatic and could complete long computations without human intervention (Chposky, 10).

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The outbreak of World War II produced a desperate need for computing capability, especially for the military. New weapons systems were produced which needed trajectory tables and other essential data. In 14, John P. Eckert, John W. Mauchley, and their associates at the University of Pennsylvania decided to build a high-speed electronic computer to do the job. This machine became known as ENIAC, for Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator. It could multiply two numbers at the rate of 00 products per second, by finding the value of each product from a multiplication table stored in its memory. ENIAC was thus about 1,000 times faster than the previous generation of computers (Dolotta, 47).ENIAC used 18,000 standard vacuum tubes, occupied 1800 square feet of floor space, and used about 180,000 watts of electricity. It used punched-card input and output. The ENIAC was very difficult to program because one had to essentially re-wire it to perform whatever task he wanted the computer to do. It was, however, efficient in handling the particular programs for which it had been designed. ENIAC is generally accepted as the first successful high-speed electronic digital computer and was used in many applications from 146 to 155 (Dolotta, 50). Mathematician John von Neumann was very interested in the ENIAC. In 145 he undertook a theoretical study of computation that demonstrated that a computer could have a very simple and yet be able to execute any kind of computation effectively by means of proper programmed control without the need for any changes in hardware. Von Neumann came up with incredible ideas for methods of building and organizing practical, fast computers. These ideas, which came to be referred to as the stored-program technique, became fundamental for future generations of high-speed digital computers and were universally adopted (Hall, 7). The first wave of modern programmed electronic computers to take advantage of these improvements appeared in 147. This group included computers using random access memory (RAM), which is a memory designed to give almost constant access to any particular piece of information (Hall, 75). These machines had punched-card or punched-tape input and output devices and RAMs of 1000-word capacity. Physically, they were much more compact than ENIAC some were about the size of a grand piano and required 500 small electron tubes. This was quite an improvement over the earlier machines. The first-generation stored-program computers required considerable maintenance, usually attained 70% to 80% reliable operation, and were used for 8 to 1 years. Typically, they were programmed directly in machine language, although by the mid-150s progress had been made in several aspects of advanced programming. This group of machines included EDVAC and UNIVAC, the first commercially available computers (Hazewindus, 10). The UNIVAC was developed by John W. Mauchley and John Eckert, Jr. in the 150Õs. Together they had formed the Mauchley-Eckert Computer Corporation, Americas first computer company in the 140Õs. During the development of the UNIVAC, they began to run short on funds and sold their company to the larger Remington-Rand Corporation. Eventually they built a working UNIVAC computer. It was delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau in 151 where it was used to help tabulate the U.S. population (Hazewindus, 14). Early in the 150s two important engineering discoveries changed the electronic computer field. The first computers were made with vacuum tubes, but by the late 150Õs computers were being made out of transistors, which were smaller, less expensive, more reliable, and more efficient (Shallis, 40). In 15, Robert Noyce, a physicist at the Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation, invented the integrated circuit, a tiny chip of silicon that contained an entire electronic circuit. Gone was the bulky, unreliable, but fast machine; now computers began to become more compact, more reliable and have more capacity (Shallis, 4). These new technical discoveries rapidly found their way into new models of digital computers. Memory storage capacities increased 800% in commercially available machines by the early 160s and speeds increased by an equally large margin. These machines were very expensive to purchase or to rent and were especially expensive to operate because of the cost of hiring programmers to perform the complex operations the computers ran. Such computers were typically found in large computer centers--operated by industry, government, and private laboratories--staffed with many programmers and support personnel (Rogers, 77). By 156, 76 of IBMs large computer mainframes were in use, compared with only 46 UNIVACs (Chposky, 15). In the 160s efforts to design and develop the fastest possible computers with the greatest capacity reached a turning point with the completion of the LARC machine for Livermore Radiation Laboratories by the Sperry-Rand Corporation, and the Stretch computer by IBM. The LARC had a core memory of 8,000 words and multiplied in 10 microseconds. Stretch was provided with several ranks of memory having slower access for the ranks of greater capacity, the fastest access time being less than 1 microseconds and the total capacity in the vicinity of 100 million words (Chposky, 147). During this time the major computer manufacturers began to offer a range of computer capabilities, as well as various computer-related equipment. These included input means such as consoles and card feeders; output means such as page printers, cathode-ray-tube displays, and graphing devices; and optional magnetic-tape and magnetic-disk file storage. These found wide use in business for such applications as accounting, payroll, inventory control, ordering supplies, and billing. Central processing units (CPUs) for such purposes did not need to be very fast arithmetically and were primarily used to access large amounts of records on file. The greatest number of computer systems were delivered for the larger applications, such as in hospitals for keeping track of patient records, medications, and treatments given. They were also used in automated library systems and in database systems such as the Chemical Abstracts system, where computer records now on file cover nearly all known chemical compounds (Rogers, 8). The trend during the 170s was, to some extent, away from extremely powerful, centralized computational centers and toward a broader range of applications for less-costly computer systems. Most continuous-process manufacturing, such as petroleum refining and electrical-power distribution systems, began using computers of relatively modest capability for controlling and regulating their activities. In the 160s the programming of applications problems was an obstacle to the self-sufficiency of moderate-sized on-site computer installations, but great advances in applications programming languages removed these obstacles. Applications languages became available for controlling a great range of manufacturing processes, for computer operation of machine tools, and for many other tasks (Osborne, 146). In 171 Marcian E. Hoff, Jr., an engineer at the Intel Corporation, invented the microprocessor and another stage in the development of the computer began (Shallis, 11). A new revolution in computer hardware was now well under way, involving miniaturization of computer-logic circuitry and of component manufacture by what are called large-scale integration techniques. In the 150s it was realized that scaling down the size of electronic digital computer circuits and parts would increase speed and efficiency and improve performance. However, at that time the manufacturing methods were not good enough to accomplish such a task. About 160 photoprinting of conductive circuit boards to eliminate wiring became highly developed. Then it became possible to build resistors and capacitors into the circuitry by photographic means (Rogers, 14). In the 170s entire assemblies, such as adders, shifting registers, and counters, became available on tiny chips of silicon. In the 180s very large scale integration (VLSI), in which hundreds of thousands of transistors are placed on a single chip, became increasingly common. Many companies, some new to the computer field, introduced in the 170s programmable minicomputers supplied with software packages. The size-reduction trend continued with the introduction of personal computers, which are programmable machines small enough and inexpensive enough to be purchased and used by individuals (Rogers, 15). One of the first of such machines was introduced in January 175. Popular Electronics magazine provided plans that would allow any electronics wizard to build his own small, programmable computer for about $80 (Rose, ). The computer was called the Altair 8800. Its programming involved pushing buttons and flipping switches on the front of the box. It didnt include a monitor or keyboard, and its applications were very limited (Jacobs, 5). Even though, many orders came in for it and several famous owners of computer and software manufacturing companies got their start in computing through the Altair. For example, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, founders of Apple Computer, built a much cheaper, yet more productive version of the Altair and turned their hobby into a business (Fluegelman, 16). After the introduction of the Altair 8800, the personal computer industry became a fierce battleground of competition. IBM had been the computer industry standard for well over a half-century. They held their position as the standard when they introduced their first personal computer, the IBM Model 60 in 175 (Chposky, 156). However, the newly formed Apple Computer company was releasing its own personal computer, the Apple II (The Apple I was the first computer designed by Jobs and Wozniak in Wozniaks garage, which was not produced on a wide scale). Software was needed to run the computers as well. Microsoft developed a Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) for the IBM computer while Apple developed its own software system (Rose, 7). Because Microsoft had now set the software standard for IBMs, every software manufacturer had to make their software compatible with Microsofts. This would lead to huge profits for Microsoft (Cringley, 16). The main goal of the computer manufacturers was to ma ke the computer as affordable as possible while incre asing speed, reliability, and capacity. Nearly every computer manufacturer accomplished this and computers popped up everywhere. Computers were in businesses keeping track of inventories. Computers were in colleges aiding students in research. Computers were in laboratories making complex calculations at high speeds for scientists and physicists. The computer had made its mark everywhere in society and built up a huge industry (Cringley, 174). The future is promising for the computer industry and its technology. The speed of processors is expected to double every year and a half in the coming years. As manufacturing techniques are further perfected the prices of computer systems are expected to steadily fall. However, since the microprocessor technology will be increasing, its higher costs will offset the drop in price of older processors. In other words, the price of a new computer will stay about the same from year to year, but technology will steadily increase (Zachary, 4) Since the end of World War II, the computer industry has grown from a standing start into one of the biggest and most profitable industries in the United States. It now comprises thousands of companies, making everything from multi-million dollar high-speed supercomputers to printout paper and floppy disks. It employs millions of people and generates tens of billions of dollars in sales each year (Malone, 1). Surely, the computer has impacted every aspect of peoples lives. It has affected the way people work and play. It has made everyones life easier by doing difficult work for people. The computer truly is one of the most incredible inventions in history. Works Cited Chposky, James. Blue Magic. New York Facts on File Publishing. 188. Cringley, Robert X. Accidental Empires. Reading, MA Addison Wesley Publishing, 1. Dolotta, T.A. Data Processing 140-185. New York John Wiley & Sons, 185. Fluegelman, Andrew.A New World, MacWorld. San Jose, Ca MacWorld Publishing, February, 184 (Premire Issue). Hall, Peter. Silicon Landscapes. Boston Allen & Irwin, 185 Gulliver, David. Silicon Valey and Beyond. Berkeley, Ca Berkeley Area Government Press, 181. Hazewindus, Nico. The U.S. Microelectronics Industry. New York Pergamon Press, 188. Jacobs, Christopher W.The Altair 8800, Popular Electronics. New York Popular Electronics Publishing, January 175. Malone, Michael S. The Big Scare The U.S. Coputer Industry. Garden City, NY Doubleday & Co., 185. Osborne, Adam. Hypergrowth. Berkeley, Ca Idthekkethan Publishing Company, 184. Rogers, Everett M. Silicon Valey Fever. New York Basic Books, Inc. Publishing, 184. Rose, Frank. West of Eden. New York Viking Publishing, 18. Shallis, Michael. The Silicon Idol. New York Shocken Books, 184. Soma, John T. The History of the Computer. Toronto Lexington Books, 176. Zachary, William. The Future of Computing, Byte. Boston Byte Publishing, August 14.

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Hemp feilds

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STALK FOR FABRIC, FUEL, PAPER & COMMERCIAL USE. Hemp is dried and broken down into two parts threadlike fibers and bits of hurd, or pulp. Each of these products has its own distinct applications SEEDS FOR OIL & FOOD Hemp seeds produce oil for cooking, lubrication, fuel, etc. The seed is a cholesterol-lowering source of full protein. Leaves and flowers are also edible. The long bark fiber is cleaned and spun into threads and yarn for rope or knit or woven into a variety of durable, high-quality textiles for clothing, canvas and fabrics of many types and textures. FOLIAGE FOR MEDICINE, FOOD & RELAXATION. Cannabis has important medical value for easing pain, relieving stress and treating illnesses from glaucoma to cancer to nausea to AIDS and beyond. Hemp flowers and leaves are smoked or eaten for many theraputic, religious and relaxational purposes. The inner core that remains is called hemp hurds, with cellulose for tree-free, dioxin-free paper; nontoxic paints and sealants; industrial fabrication materials construction materials; hemi-ceilulose for plastic, and much more! Hemp is the best sustainable source of plant pulp for biomass fuel to make charcoal, gas, methanol, gasoline or even produce electricity. ROOTED IN NATURE Even the hemp roots play an important role they anchor and aerate the soil to control erosion and mudslides. Hemp can save family farms, create jobs, reduce acid rain and chemical pollution, and reverse the greenhouse effect.So much evidence has accumulated that even the DEA admits that marijuana is not a gateway drug. Legalizing hemp/marijuana will reduce our hard drug related crimes significantly. Its time to end the folly of a fraudulent War on HEMP that has failed in every respect. Policy debates regarding marijuana-law reform invariably raise the issue of marijuana and driving. This is a valid concern. In fact, NORMLs own Principles of Responsible Cannabis Use invoke a no driving clause, stating Although cannabis is said by most experts to be safer than alcohol and many prescription drugs with motorists, responsible cannabis consumers never operate motor vehicles in an impaired condition.Nevertheless, concerns regarding doped driving should not be an impediment to marijuana-law reform. Alcohol is legal in America, yet every state maintains tough laws punishing those who choose to drive impaired by it. There is no reason why similar principles should not regulate cannabis consumption.

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Moreover, emerging scientific research indicates that cannabis actually has far less impact on the psychomotor skills needed for driving than alcohol does, and is seldom a causal factor in automobile accidents. The following documents provide a comprehensive overview of the scientific evidence regarding marijuanas impact on psychomotor skills and driving.Marijuanas therapeutic uses are well-documented in modern scientific literature. The studies indicate that marijuana provides symptomatic relief for a number of medical conditions, including nausea and vomiting, stimulating appetite, promoting weight gain, and diminishing intraocular pressure from glaucoma. There is also evidence that smoked marijuana and/or THC reduces muscle spasticity from spinal cord injuries and multiple sclerosis, and diminishes treMyth MaMyth Marijuana Causes Chromosome and Cell Damage rijuana toptopMyth Pot Causes High Blood PressureDamages the Immune System mors in multiple sclerosis patients. Patients and physicians have also reported that smoked marijuana provides relief from migraine headaches, depression, seizures, insomnia and chronic pain, among other conditions.In 17, a Congressionally created commission called the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse, whose members were appointed by then-President Richard Nixon, completed one of the most comprehensive reviews ever undertaken regarding marijuana and public policy. Their report, Marihuana A Signal of Misunderstanding, proclaimed that from what is now known about the effects of marihuana, its use at the present level does not constitute a major threat to public health, and recommended Congress and state legislatures decriminalize the use and casual distribution of marijuana for personal use.Any discussion of marijuana should begin with the fact that there have been numerous official reports and studies, every one of which has concluded that marijuana poses no great risk to society and should not be criminalized. These include the National Academy of Sciences Analysis of Marijuana Policy(18); the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse (the Shafer Report) (17); the Canadian Governments Commission of Inquiry (Le Dain Report) (170); the British Advisory Committee on Drug Dependency (Wooton Report) (168); the La Guardia Report (144); the Panama Canal Zone Military Investigations (116-); and Britains monumental Indian Hemp Drugs Commission (18-4).It is sometimes claimed that there is new evidence showing marijuana is more harmful than was thought in the sixties. In fact, the most recent studies have tended to confirm marijuanas safety, refuting claims that it causes birth defects, brain damage, reduced testosterone, or increased drug abuse problems.The current consensus is well stated in the 0th annual report of the California Research Advisory Panel (10), which recommended that personal use and cultivation of marijuana be legalized An objective consideration of marijuana shows that it is responsible for less damage to society and the individual than are alcohol and cigarettes.Marijuana and SmokingA recent survey by the Kaiser Permanente Center found that daily marijuana-only smokers have a 1% higher rate of respiratory complaints than non-smokers.1 These findings were not surprising, since it has long been known that, aside from its psychoactive ingredients, marijuana smoke contains virtually the same toxic gases and carcinogenic tars as tobacco. Human studies have found that pot smokers suffer similar kinds of respiratory damage as tobacco smokers, putting them at greater risk of bronchitis, sore throat, respiratory inflammation and infections. Myth Pot Kills Brain Cells Government experts now admit that pot doesnt kill brain cells.1 This myth came from a handful of animal experiments in which structural changes (not actual cell death, as is often alleged) were observed in brain cells of animals exposed to high doses of pot. Many critics still cite the notorious monkey studies of Dr. Robert G. Heath, which purported to find brain damage in three monkeys that had been heavily dosed with cannabis. This work was never replicated and has since been discredited by a pair of better controlled, much larger monkey studies, one by Dr. William Slikker of the National Center for Toxicological Research and the other by Charles Rebert and Gordon Pryor of SRI International.4 Neither found any evidence of physical alteration in the brains of monkeys exposed to daily doses of pot for up to a year. Human studies of heavy users in Jamaica and Costa Rica found no evidence of abnormalities in brain physiology.5 Even though there is no evidence that pot causes permanent brain damage, users should be aware that persistent deficits in short-term memory have been noted in chronic, heavy marijuana smokers after 6 to 1 weeks of abstinence.6 It is worth noting that other drugs, including alcohol, are known to cause brain damage. There is no scientific evidence for the theory that marijuana is a gateway drug. The cannabis-using cultures in Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Latin America show no propensity for other drugs. The gateway theory took hold in the sixties, when marijuana became the leading new recreational drug. It was refuted by events in the eighties, when cocaine abuse exploded at the same time marijuana use declined. As we have seen, there is evidence that cannabis may substitute for alcohol and other hard drugs. A recent survey by Dr. Patricia Morgan of the University of California at Berekeley found that a significant number of pot smokers and dealers switched to methamphetamine ice when Hawaiis marijuana eradication program created a shortage of pot.1 Dr. Morgan noted a similar phenomenon in California, where cocaine use soared in the wake of the CAMP helicopter eradication campaign.The one way in which marijuana does lead to other drugs is through its illegality persons who deal in marijuana are likely to deal in other illicit drugs as well. Decriminalization The state has decriminalized marijuana to some degree. Typically, decriminalization means no prison time or criminal record for first-time possession of a small amount for personal consumption. The conduct is treated like a minor traffic violation.Medical marijuana This state has medical marijuana laws enacted. Modern research suggests that cannabis is a valuable aid in the treatment of a wide range of clinical applications. These include pain relief, nausea, spasticity, glaucoma, and movement disorders. Marijuana is also a powerful appetite stimulant and emerging research suggests that marijuanas medicinal properties may protect the body against some types of malignant tumors, and are neuroprotective. For more information see NORMLs Medical Marijuana section. TALKING POINT # Decriminalization does not lead to greater marijuana use. Government studies conclude that marijuana decriminalization has had virtually no effect on either marijuana use or beliefs and related attitudes about marijuana among American young people in those states that have enacted such a policy. Citizens who live under decriminalization laws consume marijuana at rates less than or comparable to those who live in regions where the possession of marijuana remains a criminal offense. Rates of hard drug use (illicit drugs other than marijuana) among emergency room patients are substantially higher in states that have not decriminalized marijuana use. Experts speculate that this is because the lack of decriminalization may encourage the greater use of drugs that are even more dangerous than marijuana. MYTHMARIJUANAS HARMS HAVE BEEN PROVED SCIENTIFICALLY. In the 160s and 170s, many people believed that marijuana was harmless. Today we know that marijuana is much more dangerous than previously believed. FACTIn 17, after reviewing the scientific evidence, the National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse concluded that while marijuana was not entirely safe, its dangers had been grossly overstated. Since then, researchers have conducted thousands of studies of humans, animals, and cell cultures. None reveal any findings dramatically different from those described by the National Commission in 17. In 15, based on thirty years of scientific research editors of the British medical journal Lancet concluded that the smoking of cannabis, even long term, is not harmful to health.MYTHMARIJUANA HAS NO MEDICINAL VALUE. Safer, more effective drugs are available. They include a synthetic version of THC, marijuanas primary active ingredient, which is marketed in the United States under the name Marinol.FACTMarijuana has been shown to be effective in reducing the nausea induced by cancer chemotherapy, stimulating appetite in AIDS patients, and reducing intraocular pressure in people with glaucoma. There is also appreciable evidence that marijuana reduces muscle spasticity in patients with neurological disorders. A synthetic capsule is available by prescription, but it is not as effective as smoked marijuana for many patients. Pure THC may also produce more unpleasant psychoactive side effects than smoked marijuana. Many people use marijuana as a medicine today, despite its illegality. In doing so, they risk arrest and imprisonment.MYTHMARIJUANA IS HIGHLY ADDICTIVE. Long term marijuana users experience physical dependence and withdrawal, and often need professional drug treatment to break their marijuana habits.FACTMost people who smoke marijuana smoke it only occasionally. A small minority of Americans - less than 1 percent - smoke marijuana on a daily basis. An even smaller minority develop a dependence on marijuana. Some people who smoke marijuana heavily and frequently stop without difficulty. Others seek help from drug treatment professionals. Marijuana does not cause physical dependence. If people experience withdrawal symptoms at all, they are remarkably mild.MYTHMARIJUANA KILLS BRAIN CELLS. Used over time, marijuana permanently alters brain structure and function, causing memory loss, cognitive impairment, personality deterioration, and reduced productivity.FACTNone of the medical tests currently used to detect brain damage in humans have found harm from marijuana, even from long term high-dose use. An early study reported brain damage in rhesus monkeys after six months exposure to high concentrations of marijuana smoke. In a recent, more carefully conducted study, researchers found no evidence of brain abnormality in monkeys that were forced to inhale the equivalent of four to five marijuana cigarettes every day for a year. The claim that marijuana kills brain cells is based on a speculative report dating back a quarter of a century that has never been supported by any scientific study.MYTHMARIJUANA CAUSES AN AMOTIVATIONAL SYNDROME. Marijuana makes users passive, apathetic, and uninterested in the future. Students who use marijuana become underachievers and workers who use marijuana become unproductive.FACTFor twenty-five years, researchers have searched for a marijuana-induced amotivational syndrome and have failed to find it. People who are intoxicated constantly, regardless of the drug, are unlikely to be productive members of society. There is nothing about marijuana specifically that causes people to lose their drive and ambition. In laboratory studies, subjects given high doses of marijuana for several days or even several weeks exhibit no decrease in work motivation or productivity. Among working adults, marijuana users tend to earn higher wages than non-users. College students who use marijuana have the same grades as nonusers. Among high school students, heavy use is associated with school failure, but school failure usually comes first.MYTHMARIJUANA IMPAIRS MEMORY AND COGNITION. Under the influence of marijuana, people are unable to think rationally and intelligently. Chronic marijuana use causes permanent mental impairment.FACTMarijuana produces immediate, temporary changes in thoughts, perceptions, and information processing. The cognitive process most clearly affected by marijuana is short-term memory. In laboratory studies, subjects under the influence of marijuana have no trouble remembering things they learned previously. However, they display diminished capacity to learn and recall new information. This diminishment only lasts for the duration of the intoxication. There is no convincing evidence that heavy long-term marijuana use permanently impairs memory or other cognitive functions.MYTHMARIJUANA CAUSES CRIME. Marijuana users commit more property offenses than nonusers. Under the influence of marijuana, people become irrational, aggressive, and violent.FACTEvery serious scholar and government commission examining the relationship between marijuana use and crime has reached the same conclusion marijuana does not cause crime. The vast majority of marijuana users do not commit crimes other than the crime of possessing marijuana. Among marijuana users who do commit crimes, marijuana plays no causal role. Almost all human and animal studies show that marijuana decreases rather than increases aggression.MYTHMARIJUANA IS MORE DAMAGING TO THE LUNGS THAN TOBACCO. Marijuana smokers are at a high risk of developing lung cancer, bronchitis, and emphysema.FACTModerate smoking of marijuana appears to pose minimal danger to the lungs. Like tobacco smoke, marijuana smoke contains a number of irritants and carcinogens. But marijuana users typically smoke much less often than tobacco smokers, and over time, inhale much less smoke. As a result, the risk of serious lung damage should be lower in marijuana smokers. There have been no reports of lung cancer related solely to marijuana. However, because researchers have found precancerous changes in cells taken from the lungs of heavy marijuana smokers, the possibility of lung cancer from marijuana cannot be ruled out. Unlike heavy tobacco smokers, heavy marijuana smokers exhibit no obstruction of the lungs small airway. That indicates that people will not develop emphysema from smoking marijuana.MYTHMARIJUANA USE IS A MAJOR CAUSE OF HIGHWAY ACCIDENTS. Like alcohol, marijuana impairs psychomotor function and decreases driving ability. If marijuana use increases, an increase in of traffic fatalities is inevitable.FACTThere is no compelling evidence that marijuana contributes substantially to traffic accidents and fatalities. At some doses, marijuana affects perception and psychomotor performances- changes which could impair driving ability. However, in driving studies, marijuana produces little or no car-handling impairment- consistently less than produced by low moderate doses of alcohol and many legal medications. In contrast to alcohol, which tends to increase risky driving practices, marijuana tends to make subjects more cautious. Surveys of fatally injured drivers show that when THC is detected in the blood, alcohol is almost always detected as well. For some individuals, marijuana may play a role in bad driving. The overall rate of highway accidents appears not to be significantly affected by marijuanas widespread use in society.

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Closed Captioning

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Just as a caption in a book is the text under a picture, captions on video are text located somewhere on the picture. Since there is no way for a television to put text outside the area of the picture tube, captions do end up covering a portion of the picture (there are non-broadcast applications where this can be done). CLOSED captions are captions that are hidden in the video signal, invisible without a special decoder. The place they are hidden is called line 1 of the vertical blanking interval (VBI). OPEN captions are captions that have been decoded, so they have become an integral part of the television picture, like subtitles in a movie. In other words, open captions cannot be turned off. The term open captions is also used to refer to subtitles created with a character generator.How can I see closed captions on my television?There are two ways to accomplish this by using an external decoder, or by using a television with a decoder built in. External decoders are available from several sources, and a law in the United States called the Television Decoder Circuitry Act of 10 mandates that since July 1, all televisions manufactured for sale in the U.S. must contain a built-in caption decoder if the picture tube is 1 or larger. All decoders in North America are Line 1 decoders, named for the place where the captions are encoded. Can I get captions with cable TV?Absolutely. Since the caption data is hidden in the picture, it will reach you no matter how the TV signal gets to your set. There are problems from time-to-time with delivery of captions on the lower-budget cable systems, however. Much of this comes from the use of equipment that either cleans up or compresses the television signal, losing the VBI (where the captions are carried) when it is done.Cable TV companies are, however, required by the FCC to maintain captioning information. If you see a show through cable that you know to have captions, and the captions arent coming through for you, contact the cable TV company and remind them of this!Can I get captions from a satellite dish?Yes. Just like with cable TV, the caption data is hidden in the picture, it will reach you no matter how the TV signal gets to your set. This is true both of the big dishes used for traditional analog satellite broadcasts, and the DSS (Digital Satellite Service) dishes used by companies like USSB and DirecTV. What are CC1 and CC?Decoders were originally designed to allow for captioning in more than one language, although we dont see much of it (60 Minutes, which is captioned in English and Spanish, is an exception). Line 1, where the captions are carried, is split into two fields. Field one carries two caption channels, CC1 and CC. Field two carries the other two, CC and CC4. Who do I talk to if I want my favorite show to be captioned?If your favorite show doesnt have captions, and youd like it to, your first step is to find out who produces it. If it is a national show, it will be more effective to contact the network and/or the production company than to contact your local television station, although it never hurts to do both. In either case, ask for the public relations department first. If they cant take care of you, they can always direct you to someone who can. If you are attempting to start a large-scale lobbying effort to get captions on a show, make sure you have facts and figures before you contact the station. Be prepared to tell them how many deaf and hard-of-hearing viewers there are in the area, which of their advertisers have captioning, and what their competitors are doing in that time slot. See if there are any applicable laws mandating captioning. You can even track down captioning firms and provide the station with their names and phone numbers (make sure to provide more than one, or it will look like the captioning firm is orchestrating your efforts). Petitions are highly effective as well. How many people have televisions with caption decoders? As of July 1, when the Television Decoder Circuitry Act took effect, roughly 500,000 standalone decoders had been sold (almost all from NCI), and roughly 1,000,000 televisions with caption decoders (mostly from Zenith). Since that date, roughly 0,000,000 televisions per year are being sold with caption decoders in them. That would indicate that there are close to 150,000,000 TVs with decoders in North America (as of early 001). That number, of course, doesnt take replacement televisions into account, so the actual number is probably lower.The Caption Center predicted that every home in the United States would have a caption-capable television set by the year 000. Were certainly not there yet, but were mighty close.Where do captions come from?Captions can be placed on a video signal in one of two ways Online (live) or Offline (post-production). Online captioning is done as an event occurs. Examples of online captioning are television news shows, live seminars, and sports events. Online captions can be done from a script, or actually created in real-time (see the next question). Offline captioning is done after the fact, in a studio. Examples of offline captioning include television game shows, videotapes of movies, and corporate videotapes (e.g., training videos). The text of the captions is created on a computer, and synchronized to the video using time codes. They are then transferred to the videotape before it is broadcast or distributed. Why are there different icons to denote captioned programs? You will often see an icon in the corner of the screen at the beginning of a captioned program, but not all shows use the same one for trademark reasons. The CC (with or without the rounded rectangle surrounding it) is a generic icon, which can be used by any company. Camera-ready artwork for this icon is available from the Caption Center and from VITAC. This icon, which looks like a comic strip's speech balloon (a rounded rectangle with a small "tail" protruding below) is a registered mark of the National Captioning Institute (NCI), and is only used for productions that are captioned by NCI. Other icons are used for captioning in other countries and other languages as well. There is, for example, a new icon being used for Spanish-language captioning in Puerto Rico. What does the ADA say about captioning? The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) specifically mandates that all government-funded public service announcements must be captioned. That is about the end of the specific mention of captioning. There are a lot of implied requirements, however, which are yet to be tested in court, despite the fact that the ADA was enacted in 1. There is some question regarding captioning of things like City Council meetings.When will all U.S. television programming have to be captioned?All new (aired for the first time on or after 1/1/18) video programming must be captioned by 1/1/006. This is a phase-in, requiring 5% of programming by 1/1/000, 50% by 1/1/00, and 75% by 1/1/004. For old programming (aired for the first time before 1/1/18), 0% must be captioned by 1/1/00, and 75% by 1/1/008. With Spanish-language programming, the deadline is 010 for new programming and 01 for old programming. Why do captions sometimes jump around the screen?Caption placement is a tricky part of captioning. The location of the captions can indicate who is speaking, and they also move around to keep from covering important information. Why is captioning almost always in uppercase (capitals)?

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Numerous studies have shown that mixed-case text is easier to read than all uppercase. Virtually all captioning in North America is done in uppercase only, however, because the resolution of the caption decoders caused some pretty ugly lowercase letters. For example, there are no descenders available for the lowercase i, j, g, q, and y. This means that these letters are pushed up on the line relative to the other letters, making it harder to read. Mixed-case text is often used to indicate whispering, and is also often used for text that needs to be set apart, such as comments by an off-screen announcer (voice-over), or sound effects. Why do the captions not always match the audio?There are several possible reasons for captions that dont match the audio portion of a program Intentional editing Childrens programs such as Sesame Street or Barney target audiences that dont have well-developed reading skills. The captions are edited down to a reading level that these audiences should be able to follow (usually about 60 words per minute). There are captioning companies that edit other programs for reading speed, which has sparked many interesting debates. Changes to the program When operating under a tight schedule, a program may go to the captioner on videotape before all of the final editing is complete. The dialog may be changed and re-dubbed after the captioning is done. This can lead to captions for dialog that doesnt match, or even doesnt exist in the final tape. Why are there sometimes typos in the captions?Like anything done by a human being, real-time captioning often produces the equivalent of typos. Unlike normal typing, however, steno-captioners can write entire words or phrases with a single hand motion (known as a stroke). A mis-stroke, therefore, wont be an incorrect or missing letter, but can be entirely different words or phrases. A good real-time captioner can work to an accuracy level of better than %, but that does still lead to a couple of mis-strokes per minute. What are those funny white squares I sometimes see?When there are problems with reception, the caption decoder may not be able to retrieve the captions correctly from the VBI of the television picture. That can cause garbled or dropped letters. If the decoder receives something that it interprets as invalid, it will often display it as a solid white square (blob). There is a backspace command on newer decoders that displays on some older decoders as a white square as well. How are real-time captions generated? Real-time captions are performed by steno-captioners, who are court reporters with special training. They use a special keyboard (called a steno keyboard or shorthand machine) to write what they hear as they hear it. Unlike a traditional QWERTY keyboard, a steno keyboard allows more than one key to be pressed at a time. The basic concept behind machine shorthand is phonetic, where combinations of keys represent sounds, but the actual theory used is much more complex than straight phonics. Steno-captioners are capable of writing at speeds of up to 50 words per minute, or even faster in short bursts. The steno then goes into a computer system, where it is translated into text and commands. The captioning software on the computer formats that stream of text into captions, and sends it to a caption encoder. This can be done either directly, or over the telephone using modems. Can captioners replace sign interpreters at live events?Certainly not. Captioners and sign interpreters address two different groups of people. Prelingually deaf (or culturally Deaf) people have sign language (usually ASL) as their first language. English came later. They will be much more comfortable with an interpreter, and their comprehension level will be higher. For someone accustomed to ASL, English is quite limited in its expression, and written English is very dry. Additionally, a Deaf person who has spent most of their life communicating in ASL may not have developed the reading speed necessary to follow captions in real-time. Postlingually deaf people (or late-deafened adults) learned English before they learned to sign, if they learned to sign at all. For these people, captions will provide a far greater comprehension level. Of the deaf and hard of hearing population in the United States, roughly 10% actually know sign language. Captions benefit the rest. Each method of communication has its strengths. For example, in a speech with heavy use of proper names and specialty terminology, it may be easier to follow captions than a frantically finger spelling sign interpreter. The maximum flow of information and comprehension will occur when sign interpreters and captioners work together at the event. What skills do I need for real-time captioning?You need to be able to write real-time at speeds well in excess of 5 words per minute, with a total error rate (TER) of under 1.5% to get started. You should have extensive training, on your own and through seminars, to be able to write steno in ways that will differentiate homophones, synonyms, and unfamiliar words, at high speeds and with precision. The National Court Reporters Association CRR (Certified Real-time Reporter) exam is a good start to see if you have the necessary speed and accuracy, even though it tests to a 4.0% TER rather than a 1.5%. Vocabulary is critical. You must have a well-developed court reporting dictionary, containing all of the specialty terminology for whatever you will be captioning, plus general terms that might come up. Focus heavily on geopolitical terminology. The following is an abbreviated (yes, abbreviated) copy of what should be in an American news captioners dictionary, courtesy of Patty White and Kevin Daniel U.S. Presidents (past and present and potential), First Ladies, Cabinet Members, U.S. Senate, U.S. House of Representatives, National figures (government, religious, entertainment, criminal...), All the countries in the world and their capitals, All the states in the U.S. and their capitals, All other major U.S. cities and not so major U.S. Cities, Geographical information, like mountain ranges, mountain peaks, oceans, rivers, lakes, local creeks, Meteorological terms, weather terms. World leaders, including United Nations leaders, World history terminology, like Tet Offensive, Bolsheviks, Chairman Mao, Major wars, domestic and international, Terms related to world organizations, like NATO, OPEC, etc., Nationalities, and the languages of foreign nations, Supreme Court Justices and important SCOTUS decisions, Military leaders, Joint Chiefs of Staff, military bases, weapons of war, like A-10 tank killers, F-15s, AWACS, Tomahawk missiles, Scud, etc., National Parks, Colleges and Universities and their team names, Local stuff for the area you plan to caption in, landmarks, hospitals, junior colleges, prominent people, etc., All the professional sports teams and their nicknames, players and coaches, Sports terminology, awards, and organizations, both amateur and professional, Makes and models of automobiles, Major businesses, brand names, stock terms and trading organizations, Currencies and major banks around the world, All the colors and their shades and hues, Dog and cat breeds, Foods and their measurements and spices that go in them, Holidays, Christian, Jewish and all other faiths, Special events, like Kwanzaa, Cinco de Mayo, etc., Religious structures, like mosque, temple, etc., Books of the Bible and religions around the world, Basic chemicals, Drug names and manufacturers, both legal and illegal, Common first and last names, World literature, philosophy and religious terms, like Aesop, orthodox, Buddhism, Eucharist, the Brothers Grimm, etc., Political terms, like Glasnost, apartheid, anarchy, propaganda, caucus, expatriate, Kremlin, Parliament, etc., Computer terms, Idioms, like adieu, aloha, de rigueur, fait accompli, modus operandi, etc. How does a real-time captioner handle obscenities?Another issue facing the captioner is curse words. As a general rule of thumb, if the word is in the sound track, it should be in the captions as well. If the producer chooses to bleep the sound track, then bleep the captions, too. Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing viewers should get the same content as hearing viewers.These obscene words must be in the dictionary, because they will come up sooner or later, but they must be carefully defined so that it is virtually impossible to stroke one by accident. One common approach used by a number of captioners is to place the words in the dictionary with an asterisk in the middle of the steno stroke. Beware, though if you remove the word from the dictionary entirely, todays sophisticated phonetic translation systems may produce it anyway if you write it by accident. Put the phonetic way of writing the word in your dictionary as a NULL translation so that if you hit it by accident nothing comes out.Youll need a bleep stroke as well, for when the audio is actually censored.How do I get started in the real-time captioning business?The best way to get started is just like any other business Start calling the leading companies in the field (and the local companies) and see whos hiring. You can also start by working with local chapters of organizations like the Association of Late-Deafened Adults (ALDA), Self-Help for Hard of Hearing People (SHHH), the National Association for the Deaf (NAD), the Alexander Graham Bell Society, and others that may need your services. They pay wont be as good, but the satisfaction level is high. Sometimes the major companies hire people with little or no training under internships or on-the-job-training programs, but theres no substitute for having a little bit of experience behind you. Practice on the kind of material you want to caption, and offer to demonstrate your skills. If you are planning to do work for the television news industry, get to know the business and the terminology before you approach anybody. Make sure your equipment is in place and that you know how to use it. Certification is not required, but is a good thing to have.

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