Coping with cultural distances in International Business

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1. INTRODUCTION . THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CULTURE 4 .1 The three levels of culture 4 Help with essay on Coping with cultural distances in International Business

. Hofstedes four dimensions of culture 5 ..1 Power Distance 6 .. Individualism-Collectivism 6 .. Uncertainity Avoidance 7 ..4 Masculinity ..5 Summary of the four dimensions . NEGOTIATION PROCESS 14 .1 What is negotiation? 14 . The aspects of negotiation 14 . Negotiation strategies 154. CROSS-CULTURAL BUSINESS NEGOTIATIONS 17 4.1 Cultural implications 174.1.1 Communication 174.1. Relationships 18 4. Stereotypes of cultures 1 4. Practical viewpoints interview of Jyrki Paavola, Hacklin Oy 1 5. SUMMARY 0 REFERENCES APPENDIX 11. INTRODUCTIONNowadays distances are getting shorter and the world is globalizing. In order to survive companies must respond to the tightening competition. Internationalization is becoming a part of companies' daily lives. Exporting and importing has been part of the business for centuries, but also other types of international activities are becoming more frequent. International acquisitions and mergers as well as establishing new product plants abroad are common projects for large corporations.Even though business is dealt between companies, it is people, human beings, who are involved in these processes. This requires interaction and communication between various individuals and decision makers. Negotiations are held for various instances and play a crucial role in accomplishing decisions between and within companies. Couple of decades ago companies were satisfied with having a product and being able to sell it to somebody; nowadays both parties are involved in negotiations trying to find win-win situations and different solutions. This creates pressures for people who are responsible of negotiations.As mentioned earlier, we are now living in more and more international environment. It does not, however, mean that there are no cultural differences anymore. Language alone can be a challenging obstacle. In addition negotiation techniques and procedures can be very different. Behind these artifacts lays the values, which are very difficult to comprehend.In this seminar paper we are trying to illustrate the effect of cultural values on different negotiation techniques and methods. We believe that preparation plays a vital role in successful cross-cultural negotiations. First we approach the matter from theoretical point of view and at the end of the paper we also show practical example from the life of a Finnish manager.. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CULTUREAccording to Geert Hofstede, culture is 'collective programming of the mind'. What we have learned from our parents, from school and from work, affects our values and behaviour. Everything we do, or think is in some way taught. (Hofstede 180) Cultures effects on our behaviour can be demonstrated with Figure 1.Figure 1. Cultures effects on behavior (Hasan 18)In fact, one could compare culture with an ice berg, where only the top is above the water. The danger with ice berg and culture is that after we have seen the top, we believe that we know what is under the surface. The top of culture, which is perceived, could be e.g. behavior, clothing and architecture. Below the surface lies ethics, values, sense of justice and our relations towards work and other people. (Brislin and Yoshida 14, 41; Szabo 18)When we meet people from another culture we begin to form perceptions and standpoints. We are trying to understand them. If we form these perceptions by only observing their behavior and their looks, our estimates about them will not be correct. True values and the reasons for their behavior lie somewhere else. Therefore, we must examine the culture deeper, under the surface..1 The three levels of cultureCulture can be divided in different levels. At the top level there is the national culture. The most important element of it consists of values. Our values determine what we consider to be beautiful or ugly, good or evil and right or wrong. Values are part of our unconscious and are therefore very difficult to reach. We cannot say that somebodys values are right or wrong, they are just different. If we want to change someones values, we must be prepared for a long and difficult process. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 11-10)The lower levels of the culture are easier to reach. At the middle level there is the professional culture. Certain professional groups, such as soldiers, engineers and doctors share their own professional language, jargon, and professional culture. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 10; Snell et al. 18) A Finnish and a German doctor may relate closer to each other, than for example a Finnish doctor and a lawyer.At the lowest level there is the organizational culture. In each organization there are certain rituals and habits that occur worldwide regardless of the country where the daughter company is located at. For example, the employees of a large multinational company may feel to be the part of the big, happy family. Even though organizations often have deep values and beliefs, organizational culture is usually superficial. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 10; Brewster and Tyson, 11)In next chapters we will concentrate to observe mainly national cultures.. Hofstedes four dimensions of culture Geert Hofstede conducted a large survey in 167 and 17. He studied employees of the IBM in over 50 countries. Since all of the employees were working within the same company, he was able to concentrate on national differences. In this way he was capable of differentiating four dimensions, with which he could observe the differences and similarities of national cultures. These four dimensions are Power Distance, Individualism-Collectivism, Uncertainty Avoidance and Masculinity . (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 10-11; Brislin and Yoshida 14, 16-17; Hofstede 180; Szabo 18)..1 Power DistanceWith Power Distance can be explained those perceptions that people have about power distribution and its justification. If society accepts that power and wealth is distributed unequally, the society has high Power Distance. In high PD countries managers are authorities. In low PD nations, like in Nordic countries, managers and leaders are consultative and they will discuss about issues. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 11; Brislin and Yoshida 14, 16-17; Hofstede 180)Asia has typically high Power Distance. If manager for example in negotiation makes an error, the subordinate must accept the mistake and continue the negotiation. He/she cannot notify the manager about the error, because manager would loose his/hers face. It would shrink the distance between superiors and subordinates, and that would be against cultural rules. (Brislin and Yoshida 14, 6-7)Reasons for high or low Power Distance has been researched widely. For high PD countries it seems to be typical, that they are former colonies. The nation is typically poor and power has concentrated in few hands. Climate is usually warm tropical or sub-tropical. Also middle class is more often than not less educated than in low PD countries. (Hofstede 180)When negotiators from low PD countries meet their counterparts from high PD countries there will eventually be misunderstandings. For example Finnish negotiators may be confused when the other party talks only to the Finnish manager. The other negotiators may become frustrated since nobody pays attention to them. On the other hand, once you know who is the superior manager of the opposite party, you know who makes all the decisions. And thus you can concentrate only to that one person... Individualism-CollectivismIn cultures, where individualism is appreciated one should look after him/herself and ones family. In collective cultures people are more likely to form groups and look after each other within these groups. In collective societies family is also larger than just a nuclear family. Aunts, uncles and grand parents belong often in families. In collective countries teamwork has a significant role. When in individualistic countries people are thinking about themselves, in collective cultures people are first thinking about groups interests. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 11; Brislin and Yoshida 14, 16-17; Hofstede 180)The United States and the other Anglo countries are typically high Individual cultures (Hofstede 180). Competition of the success between individuals is keen. This can lead to aggressive behavior in negotiations. There may also be individuals who are just trying to 'look good' rather than trying to find the best solution for everybody. Asia and Arabic countries are collective cultures. People work more effectively in groups than in individualistic cultures. Negotiators from high IND cultures can expect to face problems if they are for example trying to emphasize their individual brightness. It is also common that when dealing with collective cultures, the relationships must be stable before anything firm and concrete can be achieved. In some cases it can take years. (Hofstede 180; Hofstede and Unusier 16).. Uncertainty AvoidanceUncertainty Avoidance is the one of the four dimensions, which most depends on persons individual characteristics. Still there are clear national differences. (Hofstede 180) We believe, that UA is the dimension, which most easily can be perceived in negotiations.Uncertainty Avoidance describes how uncomfortable members of society feel in new, unstructured situations and when facing uncertainty. High UA cultures form strict rules and laws to deal with upcoming situations. Members of culture are often emotional and are trying to find the absolute truth. They believe that one should not brake companys rules, even though the company would benefit from it. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 1; Brislin and Yoshida 14, 16-17; Hofstede 180) Organizations are often slow and bureaucratic. Negotiators from uncertainty tolerant cultures may become frustrated with the slow speed of negotiations, when the high UA negotiators are trying to consider everything. On the other hand, surprises are not common in high UA countries.Members of uncertainty tolerant cultures can deal better with differencies. They are more likely to be able to function effectively in cross-cultural negotiations. They do neither express their feelings openly. Negotiators from low UA cultures are less likely to suffer from stress than people from high UA cultures. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 1; Hofstede 180) Members of uncertainty tolerant cultures are used to taking risks. Therefore they can handle their stress well, even though they might have more stress than people from high UA cultures.When people from high UA cultures are afraid of the worst, people from low UA cultures hope for the best. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 1; Hofstede 180)If we research history, we can find many interesting points dealing with Uncertainty Avoidance or Tolerance. It seems like without few exceptions, those democratic nations who have formed their present structure of government after the WWI, belong to the high UA cultures. The other historical fact seems to be that if the ancestors of todays inhabitants have been under the rule of Roman Empire they have been used to strict governing and thus avoid uncertainty. The ancient Buddhism is in favor of new and openness. (Hofstede, 180) The bureaucracy of China is not because of the religion, but because of the communism.We have heard to be argued, that people from low UA cultures are better and more effective negotiators, because they are more capable of dealing with new, uncertain situations. When negotiating with people from different cultures negotiators may feel unsecure. Members of high UA cultures are not willing to take risk. On the other hand, they can be very temperamentic and even scary for the members of low UA cultures. Low UA negotiators may also become frustrated with high UA rules and rituals...4 MasculinityThe differences between values are small among the women from both masculine and feminine cultures. The national differences can be seen mainly from the values and behavior of men. Norms of the business, however, are formed by the actions and values of men. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 1; Hofstede 180) Members of the masculine society are competitive and task oriented. People are self-confident and know what they want. In masculine cultures men are succeeding better in business than women. Money and power are highly appreciated. Big is beautiful. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 1; Brislin and Yoshida 14, 16-17; Hofstede 180)In feminine cultures caring and helping are important in life. Pleasure and the quality of life is appreciated. In feminine society men and women are equal. Serving is more important than achieving. (Hofstede and Usunier 16, 1; Brislin and Yoshida 14, 16-17; Hofstede 180) In masculine society managers concentrate on tasks, performance and their personal status. In feminine cultures managers are people oriented and serve and negotiate with their subordinates. In feminine cultures people work to live, when in masculine cultures people live to work. (Hofstede, 180; Brislin and Yoshida 14, 8) In cross-cultural negotiations there can be huge differences. Masculine negotiators are aggressive and want to proceed fast. Negotiators from feminine cultures want to go on slower and have also good time. Especially women from feminine cultures may face problems when negotiating with the men from the masculine cultures...5 Summary of the four dimensionsBy using the criteria described above can different cultural areas be determined and classified rather accurately. Hofstede's studies have been criticized especially because they make too wide generalizations. (Collett, 18) On the other hand, when the purpose is to give an overview about cultural differences in international business negotiations, very specific details of cultures are useless and can be confusing.As we have stated above, in every culture there are individuals who act and think differently from the large majority. However, the conclusions demonstrated below describe rather clearly the national differences. In Table 1., there is one way to classify different countries. Dimensions have certain indexes. They are not comparable with each other, but demonstrates the differences between nations. The larger the index score is, more the country has the characteristics of the dimension. In order to give an illustrative example, we have chosen only 0 countries in our table.Table 1. Cultural values by four indicators in 0 countries (Hofstede 180, 15.)Country PD UA IND MASAustralia 6 0 51 61Austria 11 70 55 7Brazil 6 76 8 4Canada 48 80 5Denmark 18 74 16Finland 5 6 6France 68 86 71 4Germany (West) 5 65 67 66Great- Britain 5 5 8 66Greece 60 11 5 57Hong Kong 68 5 57India 77 40 48 56Iran 58 5 41 4Israel 1 81 54 47Italy 50 75 76 70Japan 54 46 5Mexico 81 8 0 6Netherlands 8 5 80 14Peru 64 87 16 4Philippines 4 44 64South Africa 4 4 65 6Singapore 74 8 0 48Spain 57 86 51 4Sweden 1 71 5Switzerland 4 58 68 70Taiwan 58 6 17 45Thailand 64 64 0 4Turkey 66 85 7 45United States 40 46 1 6Yugoslavia 76 88 7 1Mean 5 64 50 50Standard deviation 0 4 5 0There are few clear areas in the Table that can be distinguished. The countries can be divided in eight different sections Developed Asia, developing Asia, developed Latin, developing Latin, Middle-East, Anglo-cultures, Germanic cultures and the Nordic countries. (Hofstede, 180) Japan seems to be separate from the other Asian cultures. The sectors can be perceived better in the next Table. We have divided the countries in quartiles. After the country, there is the ordinal number, which illustrates in which quartile the country belongs. For example Philippines have the PD index score of 4. It is among the first 5 per cent of the countries in PD dimension, so it has the quartile score 1. In UA dimension Philippines score is 44, which places it to the last quartile of the 7 countries, thus the quartile score is 4.Table . Cultural areas divided in quartiles with 7 example countries. PD UA IND MAS Philippines 1 4 4 India 1 4 Singapore 1 4 4 Hongkong 1 4 4 Thailand 4 4Taiwan 4 Japan 1 1Mexico 1 4 1Brazil 1 France 1 1 1 4Peru 1 4 4Greece 1 Spain 1 4Italy 1 1Turkey 1 Iran South-Africa United States 1 Canada 1 Great-Britain 4 4 1 1Australia 1 Germany 4 1Austria 4 1Switzerland 4 1Finland 4 4Sweden 4 4 1 4Denmark 4 4 1 4. NEGOTIATION PROCESS.1 What is negotiation?Negotiation, as trade in general, can be seen as an effort to reach a win-win situation where both sides of the negotiation feel that they have gained from the deal. Within this continuum each negotiator tries to maximize the gain to his/her own organization. Negotiation has been described by Kapoor et al (11, 18) as "a process of interaction between people. It has the mission of creating lasting relationships. The objectives of negotiation are to manage and nurture those relationships." Other statement by Cateora (16) defines that "to negotiate is to confer, bargain or discuss with a view toward reaching an agreement."Many shortsighted negotiators do not often understand the importance of relationship nurturing and try to gain all the advantage they can from the current negotiation. This approach can be profitable when the deal is one-shot and passing in nature. However, when trying to contribute to lasting relationships more notice should be placed on the partner's situation. The reputation of stone-hard and advantage taking negotiator travels fast in business world and the negotiator may find his situation weakened also in negotiations with old partners. (Fuller 11, 8-). The aspects of negotiationAccording to Kapoor et al (11) there are four aspects to negotiating. The first of them is the aspect of networking, which involves acquiring background information about the other company and its negotiators. The aspect of communication is about the pre-meeting discussions between team members. Also during the actual negotiation negotiator will be communicating constantly, either overtly or covertly. Overt communication is proceeded through spoken words and documents, covert communication is through e.g. dressing, mannerisms and seating arrangements. In negotiations one will have to observe the other party and to analyze their communication. From that analysis one can discern facts about the other negotiators.The aspect of preparation is probably the most important part when considering the whole negotiation process. It is about the formation and training of the negotiation team. In this process information is gathered through the networking aspect or within one's own organization. When the negotiation situation is practiced, roleplays are often very good in preparing team members on what to expect. (Kapoor et al., 11, 48; Fuller, 11, 86)The aspect of contribution is the bargaining piece of the whole negotiation. If neither side is willing to give something in order to reach something the whole negotiation process is not worthwhile. Therefore a team should have a clear idea of their limits and requirements before entering the negotiation. (Kapoor et al, 11, 48; Hofstede and Usunier, 15)The aspect of environment concerns the outside influence on negotiations. As only part of the environment can be immediately understood much remains hidden to the eyes of the participants. These factors include cultural differences, economic backgrounds and also personal backgrounds. (Kapoor et al, 11, 4; Szabo, 18; Brislin and Yoshida, 14). Negotiation strategiesAccording to the dual concerns model there are four generic strategies used in negotiation. These strategies are dependent on the level of concern for both one's self interest and the other party's interest. The following matrix depicts the relationship between self and other interests and the resulting approach to negotiation. Concerns for others High LowHigh Integrative DominatingLow Obliging AvoidingConcerns for Self Different methods can be used in getting to negotiator's objectives. Several strategies are often used in negotiations and even if the negotiator is not using them him/herself negotiator must recognize these strategies in order to counter them. Win-win strategy where both parties operate in harmony and reveal their positions to each other might be best strategy to choose if there really is mutual trust. Often the opposite side may, however, choose not to reveal their facts and that would leave the negotiator in a position where bargaining is impossible. (Fuller, 11, 86-87)In stonewalling strategy the other party stubbornly refuses every suggestion. In this way they hope to gain irresistible bargain or to make the other party lose their poise.In the good samaritan approach the other party tries to prove that they are actually doing a favor to you by offering their product at such a low price. 'Take it or leave it' -negotiators want a decision to be done immediately or they will leave. Splitting the difference is a tactic where the other sides solution to tie-ups is to split the difference in price, this can however leave the other party in much worse situation than the proposing party. Piece by piece approach tries to get the other party to accept certain conditions and then negotiate on something else. The negative side of this strategy is that when tie-ups occur in some other issue, those already agreed can not be re-evaluated. (Fuller, 11, 8-5)The previous examples are general strategies used by negotiators. Some other tactics and techniques can be used for specific situations. When negotiating internationally some strategies may, however, have drawbacks when used in cultures which differ from American culture (previous examples are taken from a book made in the US). We will examine these cultural differences in next chapter.4. CROSS-CULTURAL BUSINESS NEGOTIATIONS4.1 Cultural implicationsNegotiators entering international business negotiations without proper research into that culture are most likely to face unstructured situations. Process of negotiation varies remarkably according to culture. This is the point that is not usually taken into consideration. Certain tools, such as knowledge of different strategies and Hofstede's four dimensions, enables negotiators to understand the deeper meaning behind the negotiation techniques and methods encountered in other cultures. This also assists in forming negotiators' own strategies to be used in different cultures. (Brislin and Yoshida, 14, 4; Cateora, 16)Probably the most important thing the negotiator can have is the correct mindset. Negotiators should accept the fact, that the members of the opposite party behave in different ways it is not right or wrong, it is only different. People are 'programmed' by their culture to function as they do. (Hofstede, 180; Szabo, 18; Hasan 18; Brewster, 11; Brislin and Yoshida, 14)To begin with, the negotiator must comprehend his/her own cultural mindset in order to be able to reflect the values and characteristics of other cultures to his/her own. To understand someone else one has to first understand him/herself. (Brislin and Yoshida, 14; The Development of…, 1)4.1.1 CommunicationLanguage barriers are probably the most visible obstacles when considering communication. The problem of getting something said can, however, be smaller problem when compared to that how it is understood. Western countries generally are Low Context cultures. To them the precise meaning of what is said counts significantly and everything is usually very clearly phrased. This explains the lawyer armies of American businessmen. Other than western cultures, however, belong to High Context linguistic group, which means that they place more meaning on the relationship between the agreeing parties. Contracts may be more vague, but continuing relations solidify them on the way. (Schuster and Copeland, 16)In countries with high individualism, people are used to protecting their personal interests in opportunistic manners. Therefore they are trying to prevent the opposite party to do the same by having everything written down. In collectivist countries people place more emphasis on relationships and trust, because they expect everybody to protect the interests of group before their own.In some cultures 'yes' can mean 'no'. This is due because in high power distance cultures, one can not lose his/hers face. In these cultures saying no would mean insulting the other party and terminating the negotiation. (Hofstede, 180; Brislin and Yoshida, 14)General directness of Nordic businessmen can also lead to problems when faced with more talkative counterparts. Everything should not be accepted at a face value, because in some countries it is custom to exaggerate the offers. (Kapoor et al., 11, 154)4.1. RelationshipsWhen conducting international business negotiations it is important to understand the local relationships. You have to have the right contacts in order to negotiate at all. There can even be cases when people in negotiation room have no power about the decision to be made. Strategically it is important to understand who is the real decision maker. In countries with high power distance this is usually the superior manager, when in low PD countries the whole negotiation team is integrated in the decision making process. (Kapoor et al, 11, 84-88; Hofstede, 180; Hofstede and Usunier, 16, 15-16)When negotiating internationally good relations between negotiating parties play significant role. E.g. collective cultures do not even begin to negotiate without firm relationships. To build up relationship takes time (even years), but once a firm relationship has been formed negotiation process itself goes smoothly.4. Stereotypes of CulturesIf stereotypes are used as the only reference to cultural understanding there is a great potential to turn the cross-cultural business negotiation into a disaster. Even though stereotypes determine the culture in general, every negotiator is still an individual. (Cateora, 16, 518-51) However, stereotypes are the first (and in some cases the only) source of information about cultures. In this aspect they provide a basis for understanding of those cultures, because there are roots and reasons for stereotypes. (Szabo, 18)Here we will present a few case examples of stereotypes. When faced with these cultures in actual situation it is worthwhile to find out in what extent they are accurate. One should e.g. respect German punctuality and formality, be patient with French disability to stick with the agenda, always use humor with British and Americans and try to understand the consensus decision making of the Swedes. (Hasan, 18)4. Practical viewpoints interview of Jyrki Paavola, Hacklin OyIn order to gain also practical knowledge, we conducted an interview via e-mail. Our interviewee Jyrki Paavola is board member in Hacklin Oy, which is a middle-sized logistics provider company. He conducts about 0-50 business negotiations per year in various cultures. Therefore we consider him as an expert in our field of study. Mr. Paavola's answers support many of our findings. He for example claims preparation to be the most important stage of the negotiation process. One thing, which we found surprising, is that Mr. Paavola said language to be the most difficult aspect of negotiations. We believed that this could have been solved with the use of translator, and more emphasis could have been placed to other cultural differences.Mr. Paavola's advise to novice business negotiators to cope with cultural differences in international business negotiations is the following. You should do your homework and learn the language. In the negotiation itself you should ask if you do not understand. Behave more subtly than in domestic situations, but still do not mimic the opposite party. Also remember to mention the other party's name frequently enough.We have attached the whole questionnaire and Mr. Paavola's answers to the end of this paper.5. SUMMARYInternational business negotiations are coming more and more frequent in the global business environment. Cultures vary, however, remarkably in different countries. Hofstede alone has found eight different cultural areas, by using only four different indicators of culture. Also within cultural areas the differences can be enormous. Culture forms values attitudes and behavior, which again form culture. Everything affects everything. Thus only observing the members of alien culture we can not comprehend why people act as they do. Without the deeper knowledge of culture negotiator can not function efficiently in cross-cultural situations.In negotiations different strategies are used to reach the solution, which is usually the win-win situation. By using different cultural studies negotiators are able to better understand the mindset of their opponents. Basis for this understanding is the comprehension of one's own culture.When communicating in different cultures one should remember that everything said should not be taken literally. The effects can be reduced by establishing firm relationships and networks. These relationships can also be requirements for successful negotiations.Stereotypes are the usual form of cultural understanding. This should, however, be only a stepping stone for further research.To cope efficiently with cultural differences, the international business negotiator has to reserve time and be committed. The importance of preparation and networking should not be overlooked. It is more important to acknowledge the basic differences between cultures than to know few specific details of the culture of the opposing party.BIBLIOGRAPHYBrewster, Chris (11) The Management of Expatriates. Cranfield School of Management LondonBrewster, Chris - Tyson, Shaun (11) International comparisons in Human Resource Management. Pitman Publishing LondonBrislin, Richard W. - Yoshida, Tomoko (14) Improving Intercultural Interactions. Modules for Cross-Cultural Training Programs. Sage Publications Thousand Oaks, CaliforniaCateora, Philip R. (16) International Marketing. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data, USACollett, Peter (18) Contrasting styles in international management research. Journal of Managerial Psychology Vol. 1 No. /4 s. 14-4 Forrström, Birgitta (17) The Great Wall On Finnish expatriates in Asia and the interaction between Chinese and Finns. Åbo Akademi TurkuFuller, George (16) The Negotiators Handbook. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New JerseyHofstede, Geert (180) Cultures Concequences international differences in work-related values. Sage Publications London Hofstede, Geert - Usunier, Jean-Claude (16) Hofstedes Dimensions of Culture and their Influence on International Business Negotiations. International Business Negotiations Kapoor, Ashok Hansn, Sten-Olof Davidson, Robert L. III (11) Negotiating Internationally The Art of Networking. Recallmed Ltd., HankoSauquet, Alfonso - Jacobs, Gabriele (18) Can we learn from Herodotus? Journal of Managerial Psychology Vol. 1 No. /4 s. 167-177 Schuster, C. Copeland, M. (16) Cross-Cultural Communication Issues and Implications. International Business NegotiationsSnell, Scott A. - Snow, Charles C. - Canney Davison, Sue - Hambrick Donald C. (18) Designing and Supporting Transnational Teams The Human Resource Agenda. Human Resource Management Vol. 7, No. , s. 147-158The Development of the International Manager. (1) Personnel Management January 1Usunier, Jean-Claude (18) Oral pleasure and expatriate satisfaction an empirical approach. International Business Review Vol. 7 No. 1 s. 8-110OTHER REFERENCESHasan, Najmal (18) Lecture courses KVS1 International Business Operations and JO8 Culture and International Management. Turku School of Economics and Business Administration, autumn 18Szabo, Erna (18) Lecture course JO8 Culture and International Management. Turku School of Economics and Business Administration, autumn 18INTERVIEWSPaavola, Jyrki, board member, Hacklin Oy, interview October th 18APPENDIX 1Questionnaire and answers from Mr. Paavola1) In which fields you operate and what are your fields of responsibility?I work as a division manager and board member.in the service of logistic provider company, which employs 50 persons. My responsibilities are the business units = seven departments/companies, which combined turnover is FIM 50 mill.) In what kind of international business negotiations you have been? (What have been the objectives of those negotiations?)The objectives of negotiations are either the forming/nurturing of an agent relationship; actual trade or the acquisition of a company/its business. Sometimes these lead to law suits = negotiations with lawyers.) In how many international business negotiations do you take part annually? Tens, (0-50/a)4) Which cultures do you usually negotiate with? Germany, Benelux, Switzerland, France, Italy, UK, USA, Japan and Russia5) In what respect the international negotiations do differ from the domestic ones? If it is divided between Finland and foreign countries the main difference is that in Finland you get to point much faster.6) What is the most difficult thing about multicultural negotiations? The language, even when you are fluent with it.7) Why? The small nuances are left unnoticed and it cumulates to problems depending on the culture. You could have avoided them if you had been using your mother tongue.8) What preparations has to be made? The special aspects of every culture. The language skill is obligatory. And one has to do his/her homework before each meeting.) Which cultures do the Finns usually find the hardest to negotiate with, and why? I'll only answer for myself, the Italian style of doing three things at a time and promising without intention of meeting those promises has been very hard, like their indifference of schedules. Also the Russians have the same aspects without the many aspects at a time.10) Which cultures do the Finns usually find the easiest to negotiate with, and why? The German and Swiss way of doing a agenda and sticking to it, is despite its akwardness and punctuality a very logical.11) What kind of advice would you give to a person who is about to participate in his/her first international business negotiation?You should do your homework and learn the language. In the negotiation itself you should ask if you do not understand. Behave more subtly than in domestic situations, but still do not mimic the opposite party. Also remember to mention the other party's name frequently enough. Remember that in German speaking country you can be a good friend and still use the plural form.1) What else would you like to add?With Germans and Swiss you may use humor only after the negotiations, the English like to lighten the situation constantly with humor. The Europeans and American expect to have uninterrupted flow of communication both in negotiations and in small talk. They experience pauses as discomforting and presume the silent one to protest against something. In this aspect only the Japanese are according to my knowledge similar to the Finns, they accept the silence, which means that you can have thinking pauses without constant flow of speech.

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CENSORSHIP In todays society, all types of music artists are expressing their views, opinions and feelings in their songs about what they see and what they know. This is on of the great things about this country, the freedom to express yourself. It is not fair, nor is it constitutional that music should be censored in anyway. It is not only rap music trying to be censored it is in all types of music. They are taking away their rights and it isnt fair. As reported in the New York Times. Wall-Mart CD standards are Changing Pop Music, Wal-Mart and other large department stores sell CDs by your favorite artists which are not what your favorite artists originally created. Some retailers refuse to carry CDs with Parental Advisory Stickers, a few also go as far as to make it known to labels and artists that if the CD comes to their shelves with a dirty word, a controversial cover, or an explicit lyric it will not be allowed on the shelves. Some of the artists include Nirvana, Beck, John Mellencamp and the list goes on. (Internet ultratnet) The most recent case involving Wal-Mart and censorship, was the new Sheryl Crow album. A song on the album which lashes the company for selling guns that end up in the wrong hands as caused the company to ban the album in stores. (Schruers 64) Delores Tucker, William Bennett, Senator Joseph Lieberman, and Senator Sam Nunn held a press conference in Washington D.C. The message censor obscene music and censor pro-drug lyrics. These censors announced their plan to pressure major record companies to discontinue production of what they called obscene music and music which contains blatantly pro-drug lyrics. All of the CDs targeted as obscene already carry RIAA Parental Advisory Labels. Parents are already provided with the information they need if they choose to monitor their childrens musical selections. Discontinuing production of this music takes the freedom of expression away form everyone- musicians and fans of every age. (Internet ultranet) The increasing controversy surrounding rap music, with its rough-edged lyrics about sex and violence, has prompted two very different responses from black oriented radio stations in New York and Los Angeles. Two stations WBLS New York and KACE in Los Angeles, have announced they wont play the roughest and most offensive songs. A third station WPWR opted for a different route, saying it would lose credibility with its audience if it banned music that reflects the language of urban life. Weve got to speak their language if the message of the record is Dont call me a bitch we have got to allow the artist to get the message across. And sometimes it is necessary for the artists to use language that grabs peoples attention. Inner City Broadcasting one of the largest black owned broadcasting firms in the country, announced that its stations will not play music that is profane or advocates violence, particularly against women or homosexuals. They announced they would not air songs with the words bitch and ho to refer to women. What we are doing, as responsible broadcasters who are licensed to serve our listeners, is simply exercising our best judgment, said Pierre Sutton, Chairmen of Inner City. (Viles 0)What bothers me is that they censor the music because they are saying these words are portraying bad ideas, but they are just singing about what is all around us and what we see. It is not like saying theses lyrics are anything new. A person or a child is going to hear them regardless of any song with so called profanity in them. The people singing are just telling the truth. I think a child has a better chance of hearing profanity in there own home or school then by hearing it in a song. The recent Gangsta rap hearings on Capitol Hill bore all the elements of 185s dramatic Parents Music Resource Center debate-heated testimony talk of labeling explicit lyrics and plenty of music biz attention. Led by Illinois Sen. Carol Moseley-Braun, the Senate Juvenile Justice subcommittee met last month and launched the first of what some predicted would be several hearings to explore the effects of hard-core rap on Americas youth. The music industry has to take responsibility to make certain that children are not exposed to this stuff said Moseley-Braun. Rep. Maxine Waters, whose district includes part of South Central Los Angeles, home to many gangsta rappers, said that these young people referring to these rappers are being denied the opportunity to say who they are. They have a message, and they are forcing America to listen. (Smith ) You also may remember when hard-core rapper Ice-T wrote the song cop killer. He was just singing what he felt towards cops. He did not mean that we should all go out and start killing cops, (Light 0) I personally thought the song was very rude and not very intelligent, but at the same time I dont think he should have been censored for it. Although there is many groups being censored there many organizations fighting against censorship. Randy Lee Payton and John Woods co-founders of Rock Out Censorship and its newspaper, the ROC, call their group a national grass-roots anti- censorship organization. Woods and Payton started their organization in 18 and took up the battle against the industry-watchdog group Parents Music Resource Center. What started as a local organization soon branched out. ROC now has chapters in 1 states, as well as in England and Canada, and ROC has a circulation of 15,000 papers. By setting up tables at rock shows, ROC has gathered a data base of almost 45,000 names, and it is still growing. Now ROC is fighting bills like HB 8, sponsored by Pennsylvania state legislator T.J. Ronney, a Democrat which would criminalize the sale of labeled records to minors. The biggest difference between now and 18, says Payton, is now we find ourselves fighting these supposed liberals. It is was a lot more fun when we were fighting these religious kooks. These other people are supposed to be on our side. (Weisel 50. Another Freedom Fighter aganist music censorship is 71 year old Mary Morello, Mother of the guitarist Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine. Who act has also had their share of censorship. Morello is the founder of Parents for Rock and Rap, an anti-censorship organization that she runs from her home. She started the group to opppose the Parents Music Resource Center,(just like the founders of ROC) an organization co-founed by Tipper Gore, wife of Vice President Al Gor. That group was largely responsible for the parental advisory labels used on tapes and CDs with expilicit sexual or violoent lyrics. The label also pressures record companies, radio stations and music stores to stop playing or selling recordings considered detrimental to children. Individuals and groups are attempting to take away our first 1st Amendment rights, she says. The purpose of music is to be enjoyed, not censored. Young people should be able to listen to any type of music they like, regardless of their age. I always tell them that if you want to keep listening to the music that you enjoy, starting today you have to learn to fight back. If you dont fight for your own freedom, no one is going to give it to you. (Internet xnet). Morello believes and I agree, speech and expression are being shackled in the U.S., and she puts much of the blame on the current political climate. Cenosorship is coming down now harder then it has before. she says. Look at the Congress we have, trying to take funds away from the National Endowment for the arts, trying to kill public television. They must be living in the Dark Ages. (Internet xnet). After reaserching music censorship and supporting anti-censorship organizations, I realize that there is much wrok to be done to get free speech. There will always be someone or some group to stand aganist what you believe. I think the only way to really gain full freedom of speech is to fight and not give up. I think that the more people realize that rights are being violated, the more people will support the anit-censorship groups. I believe that people who do support these groups should really get involved. It is the only way we can win.

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Relationships between husbands and wives

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HUSBAND AND WIFE RELATIONSHIPIn the United States, marriage is a commitment two people make for the rest of their lives. The average American marriage lasts seven years. Well over half of all marriages end in divorce. Statistics of infidelity have rose fifty percent since the 170's and continues to rise. One out of every three marriages ends up in a divorce. What people don't understand is that the relationship between a husband and a wife should be sacred and trustworthy, without the trust and honesty there can be no marriage. A monogamy that is loving, sharing, and devoting one's self to another person for the rest of their life.Even some of the most primitive people look upon that very highly, but some of us have conveniently moved away from that. Two people in a marriage who are totally committed to each other will nourish and grow closer to each other everyday they are married. This brings them together as one; unlike some people believe they need to express their love to more than one person. They feel that one person is not enough to keep them satisfied emotionally, spiritually, and also physically. They believe that not being monogamous will open heart and soul to new and adventurous experiences. I believe monogamy is the best form of marriage. When two people get married they make life-long decisions to stay together as the wedding vow says, "until death do us part." Marriage is a commitment that not everyone is willing to take. I think if you have an intimate relationship with one another r, with one person who means the world to you and who makes you happy to be alive, how you can possibly share that kind of love with anybody else. Considering marriage is all about devoting one's self to that special someone. Being faithful in a marriage makes one feel accepted and loved, knowing they will always be there for them.Genesis 4 it clearly states that a man and a woman must unite as "one flesh" in order for their marriage and therefore parenting to work. They must see their children through one set of eyes that involves one set of goals, share one set of values, and act as one body when it comes to loving, teaching, and disciplining their children. They realize, that the single best thing they can do for their children is take extremely good care of their marriage. We can say that they are truly "one flesh".

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The lack of this one flesh union is displaced by the roles of father and mother. That instead of focusing on one another, they focus on their children, who therefore occupy center stage in the family. Instead of being of "one flesh". These couples are at a greater risk of divorce shortly after the last child is "brought up". A we all know, many married couples with children never even make it far. The reason being one flesh becomes two fleshes. The legal divorce only formalizes what has been already been there. The problem is that marriage is not what you or your spouse wants. It's about what God wants from us, his children. It's not about meeting what you and your spouse call "needs"- which are nothing but self-centered wants. When each of you already have a list of "needs" that you bring into the marriage, that each expect to meet, you already have two fleshes. You can only be one flesh by putting aside your individual pettiness and listening to God. Not you. Like any other relationship with time, the husband and wife relationship constantly changes. People change, society changes, as well as expectations. What we need to know as a society is that we need to "tune up" our relationships. Not let the emotional separation caused by hurts and disappointments, barriers, biological and psychological changes, and dreams and hopes that have been dissipated by time and as a result build a bridge that we are unable to cross. What most of us don't know when we become married is that which requires more energy, perseverance, honesty, and courage than any other pursuit they'll probably ever meet. Real success in a marriage involves coping with day-to-day events with the motivation to "go for it". It's the right attitude in both partners that can turn a marriage around, change minds, open hearts, heal families, and solve violence. But for some of us that right attitude doesn't come easy. Sometimes no matter how much you may try, if the other party does not cooperate it's not going to work. It's like bumping in the wall, over and over again. Eventually you get tired, tired of trying, tired of getting your feelings hurt and seeing that the other person just doesn't care. And what's worst about it is that the end you're so worn out, that you stop seeing light at the end of the tunnel. The person that's suppose to be with you through thick and thin, support you, and be your best friend, and when you see that reality is nowhere close to that, it's very disappointing, and very demoralizing. It makes you feel like a failure, because despite everything above all you still think maybe there was something else you could have done. Maybe if you would have done something different somewhere along the line things wouldn't have turned out the way they did. The feeling of helplessness, when you know you do have the power to make a difference fills you with grief. Some of us do a lot growing up at the beginning stages of our marriage, not just as a couple but as an individual. Especially if we marry at a young age, we are still finding who we are as an individual, and at the same time we're trying to find out who the person is that we married. Because it doesn't matter how well you think you know your partner, after you put on those rings and leave those church doors, it's a totally different ball game. I personally know some individuals that have admitted to this for their first 5 years of their marriage. Admitting that they were immature, selfish, and just not in the right frame of mind. The majority of these types of marriages don't last, but I extremely admire the ones that do. I don't quite understand though how some individuals can be in a type of relationship that they are being abused in some kind of way. Whether it is emotionaly, psychologically, or physically. WWhy would you stay with someone that obviously shows that there's no love, either that or they have a serious problem. Why don't they do something about it, are they in some kind of abusive relationship cause' they like it? Because that love nonsense is obviously not getting them anywhere. And even if they do seek help, help is just not enough. In some relationships the situation gets so bad that it's almost impossible to start over. Sometimes it's better to just end it, both individuals may not want that, but sometimes it's just the best thing to do. Healing our families; Can a marriage be turned around? You need two ingredients, an open mind and a change of heart. That is so much easier said than done. The absence of love is sometimes present, and then there's nothing that couple can do. The question, of "Why are we together?" comes around. Some of us try and be heroes and attempt to salvage whatever has not been damaged and try to be builders and reconstruct. That's usually the hardest, since you're so full of anger and resentment. It's very hard to let that go when you've been submitted to it for so long. As much as you may try, it's going to very difficult. It's almost like pretending it never happened, and that's nearly impossible. No matter how many years go by, the memory will always be there, unerased in our minds. Fresh like a first coat of paint. As a conclusion, marriage is like being in the military. It' what you make of it, you either suck it up and move on, or you groan and moan and be miserable the whole time. But despite everything, you should enjoy it while it lasts.

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Word

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the two books are similar because of the relation of seymour and the glass family, and his death. It relates because of the fact that holdens brother had died,a nd he was still upset but didi not show his feelings, and that went true for buddy and zooey. Franny and Zooey is composed of two sections, which were originally published in the New Yorker magazine as two separate short stories. The first story or section, Franny, was published in the New Yorker in January 155. In Franny, Franny Glass meets her boyfriend Lane Coutell for a football weekend at his college. They do not get to join many of the festivities, though, because during their first lunch together, Franny begins to have a breakdown. She tells Lane that she is sick of the phoniness at school and of the egotism of the faculty. She has quit the play she was in because she is embarrassed about what she feels to be acting fake. As she gets worked up, she reveals that she has become interested in the Jesus prayer, a continuous prayer meant to cleanse ones spirit. Lane mostly brushes off Frannys concerns until she faints on the way to the bathroom. As he is helping to revive her, she begins to speak the prayer. Zooey basically picks up where Franny left off. First, though, the narrator names himself. The man claiming to be the author of the story is Buddy Glass, one of Franny and Zooeys older brothers. The story resumes. It is the Monday after the weekend Frannys breakdown started, and Zooey is at home in New York City. In his conversation with his mother, Bessie Glass, it is revealed that Franny is now at home, sleeping and crying on the living room sofa. Bessie wants Zooey to talk to Franny, which he eventually does. The two of them have a long theological and personal discussion. We learn that the two of them have basically been raised on a blend of different religions, taught to them by their older brothers Buddy and Seymour. Over the course of this long discussion, Zooey helps Franny sort out her spiritual and personal beliefs, allowing her, by the end, to find peace

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Overall Analysis and Themes Through Franny Glasss spiritual breakdown, J. D. Salinger explores issues in not only mysticism and religion but also family, celebrity, education, and intellectualism. Of course, the religious themes are important By the end of the Zooey section, Salinger seems to have arrived at a spiritual doctrine, to be followed by many of his characters. Zooey Glass passes along the teachings of their older brother, Seymour, telling Franny that she should respect and honor all human beings even if she does not always like them. It is this concurrent lesson of Franny and Zooey that makes the narrator, Buddy Glass, comment that the story is about love as much as it is about spirituality--for what this doctrine asks of its subscribers is love for all humanity. Love is also a crucial element in the family relationships in Franny and Zooey. In the Glass family, the children are much more gifted and intelligent than the parents. But the children keep reminding each other that their parents must be loved and respected for everything they are and everything they have given their children. Even beyond love, family itself is a crucial theme in these stories. Zooey tells Franny that they have become freaks because their brothers taught them too much too young. But what their brothers taught also helps Franny out of her spiritual crisis. Through Seymours lessons and Zooeys impression of Buddys voice, Zooey channels enough support to talk Franny out of her distress. The Glass family is special not only because of its extreme intellectualism. In addition, all of the children were child stars on a radio talk show. Celebrity, therefore, also emerges as a subtle theme throughout the text. Broadly, the stories can be said to be about the results of being famous children. More specifically, Franny and Zooey must decide whether or not to stay famous (as actors) or leave the pursuit of fame behind. Much of what sets off Frannys breakdown is her disenchantment with the experience she is having at college. She hates both herself and others for the egotistical behavior and phony conformity in which they all engage. This theme is central to many of J. D. Salingers works but takes a redemptive twist in Franny and Zooey The author seems to acknowledge that even such people, with their huge egos and weak individual wills, should be admired and respected for their humanity, if nothing else.Plot Overview The Catcher in the Rye is set in the 150s and is narrated by a young man named Holden Caulfield. Holden is not specific about his location while hes telling the story, but he makes it clear that he is currently undergoing treatment in some sort of medical facility. The events he narrates take place in the few days between the end of the fall school term and Christmas, when Holden is sixteen years old. Holdens story begins on the Saturday following the end of classes at the Pencey prep school in Agerstown, Pennsylvania. Pencey is Holdens fourth school; he has already failed out of three others. At Pencey, he has failed four out of five of his classes and has received notice that he is being expelled, but he is not scheduled to return home to Manhattan until Wednesday. He visits his elderly history teacher, Spencer, to say goodbye, but when Spencer tries to reprimand him for his poor academic performance, Holden becomes annoyed. Back in the dormitory, Holden is further irritated by his unhygienic neighbor, Ackley, and by his own roommate, Stradlater. Stradlater spends the evening on a date with Jane Gallagher, a girl whom Holden used to date and whom he still admires. During the course of the evening, Holden grows increasingly nervous about Stradlaters taking Jane out, and when Stradlater returns, Holden questions him insistently about whether he tried to have sex with her. Stradlater teases Holden, who flies into a rage and attacks Stradlater. Stradlater pins Holden down and bloodies his nose. Holden decides that hes had enough of Pencey and will go to Manhattan three days early, stay in a hotel, and not tell his parents that he is back. On the train to New York, Holden meets the mother of one of his fellow Pencey students. Though he thinks this student is a complete bastard, he tells the woman made-up stories about how shy her son is and how well respected he is at school. When he arrives at Penn Station, he goes into a phone booth and considers calling several people, but for various reasons he decides against it. He gets in a cab and asks the cab driver where the ducks in Central Park go when the lagoon freezes, but his question annoys the driver. Holden has the cab take him to the Edmont Hotel, where he checks himself in. From his room at the Edmont, Holden can see into the rooms of some of the guests in the opposite wing. He observes a man putting on silk stockings, high heels, a bra, a corset, and an evening gown. He also sees a man and a woman in another room taking turns spitting mouthfuls of their drinks into each others faces and laughing hysterically. He interprets the couples behavior as a form of sexual play and is both upset and aroused by it. After smoking a couple of cigarettes, he calls Faith Cavendish, a woman he has never met but whose number he got from an acquaintance at Princeton. Holden thinks he remembers hearing that she used to be a stripper, and he believes he can persuade her to have sex with him. He calls her, and though she is at first annoyed to be called at such a late hour by a complete stranger, she eventually suggests that they meet the next day. Holden doesnt want to wait that long and winds up hanging up without arranging a meeting. Holden goes downstairs to the Lavender Room and sits at a table, but the waiter realizes hes a minor and refuses to serve him. He flirts with three women in their thirties, who seem like theyre from out of town and are mostly interested in catching a glimpse of a celebrity. Nevertheless, Holden dances with them and feels that he is half in love with the blonde one after seeing how well she dances. After making some wisecracks about his age, they leave, letting him pay their entire tab. As Holden goes out to the lobby, he starts to think about Jane Gallagher and, in a flashback, recounts how he got to know her. They met while spending a summer vacation in Maine, played golf and checkers, and held hands at the movies. One afternoon, during a game of checkers, her stepfather came onto the porch where they were playing, and when he left Jane began to cry. Holden had moved to sit beside her and kissed her all over her face, but she wouldnt let him kiss her on the mouth. That was the closest they came to necking. Holden leaves the Edmont and takes a cab to Ernies jazz club in Greenwich Village. Again, he asks the cab driver where the ducks in Central Park go in the winter, and this cabbie is even more irritable than the first one. Holden sits alone at a table in Ernies and observes the other patrons with distaste. He runs into Lillian Simmons, one of his older brothers former girlfriends, who invites him to sit with her and her date. Holden says he has to meet someone, leaves, and walks back to the Edmont. Maurice, the elevator operator at the Edmont, offers to send a prostitute to Holdens room for five dollars, and Holden agrees. A young woman, identifying herself as Sunny, arrives at his door. She pulls off her dress, but Holden starts to feel peculiar and tries to make conversation with her. He claims that he recently underwent a spinal operation and isnt sufficiently recovered to have sex with her, but he offers to pay her anyway. She sits on his lap and talks dirty to him, but he insists on paying her five dollars and showing her the door. Sunny returns with Maurice, who demands another five dollars from Holden. When Holden refuses to pay, Maurice punches him in the stomach and leaves him on the floor, while Sunny takes five dollars from his wallet. Holden goes to bed. He wakes up at ten oclock on Sunday and calls Sally Hayes, an attractive girl whom he has dated in the past. They arrange to meet for a matinee showing of a Broadway play. He eats breakfast at a sandwich bar, where he converses with two nuns about Romeo and Juliet. He gives the nuns ten dollars. He tries to telephone Jane Gallagher, but her mother answers the phone, and he hangs up. He takes a cab to Central Park to look for his younger sister, Phoebe, but she isnt there. He helps one of Phoebes schoolmates tighten her skate, and the girl tells him that Phoebe might be in the Museum of Natural History. Though he knows that Phoebes class wouldnt be at the museum on a Sunday, he goes there anyway, but when he gets there he decides not to go in and instead takes a cab to the Biltmore Hotel to meet Sally. Holden and Sally go to the play, and Holden is annoyed that Sally talks with a boy she knows from Andover afterward. At Sallys suggestion, they go to Radio City to ice skate. They both skate poorly and decide to get a table instead. Holden tries to explain to Sally why he is unhappy at school, and actually urges her to run away with him to Massachusetts or Vermont and live in a cabin. When she refuses, he calls her a pain in the ass and laughs at her when she reacts angrily. She refuses to listen to his apologies and leaves. Holden calls Jane again, but there is no answer. He calls Carl Luce, a young man who had been Holdens student advisor at the Whooton School and who is now a student at Columbia University. Luce arranges to meet him for a drink after dinner, and Holden goes to a movie at Radio City to kill time. Holden and Luce meet at the Wicker Bar in the Seton Hotel. At Whooton, Luce had spoken frankly with some of the boys about sex, and Holden tries to draw him into a conversation about it once more. Luce grows irritated by Holdens juvenile remarks about homosexuals and about Luces Chinese girlfriend, and he makes an excuse to leave early. Holden continues to drink Scotch and listen to the pianist and singer. Quite drunk, Holden telephones Sally Hayes and babbles about their Christmas Eve plans. Then he goes to the lagoon in Central Park, where he used to watch the ducks as a child. It takes him a long time to find it, and by the time he does, he is freezing cold. He then decides to sneak into his own apartment building and wake his sister, Phoebe. He is forced to admit to Phoebe that he was kicked out of school, which makes her mad at him. When he tries to explain why he hates school, she accuses him of not liking anything. He tells her his fantasy of being the catcher in the rye, a person who catches little children as they are about to fall off of a cliff. Phoebe tells him that he has misremembered the poem that he took the image from Robert Burnss poem says if a body meet a body, coming through the rye, not catch a body. Holden calls his former English teacher, Mr. Antolini, who tells Holden he can come to his apartment. Mr. Antolini asks Holden about his expulsion and tries to counsel him about his future. Holden cant hide his sleepiness, and Mr. Antolini puts him to bed on the couch. Holden awakens to find Mr. Antolini stroking his forehead. Thinking that Mr. Antolini is making a homosexual overture, Holden hastily excuses himself and leaves, sleeping for a few hours on a bench at Grand Central Station. Holden goes to Phoebes school and sends her a note saying that he is leaving home for good and that she should meet him at lunchtime at the museum. When Phoebe arrives, she is carrying a suitcase full of clothes, and she asks Holden to take her with him. He refuses angrily, and she cries and then refuses to speak to him. Knowing she will follow him, he walks to the zoo, and then takes her across the park to a carousel. He buys her a ticket and watches her ride it. It starts to rain heavily, but Holden is so happy watching his sister ride the carousel that he is close to tears. Holden ends his narrative here, telling the reader that he is not going to tell the story of how he went home and got sick. He plans to go to a new school in the fall and is cautiously optimistic about his future.Themes, Motifs, and Symbols Themes Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. Alienation as a Form of Self-Protection - Throughout the novel, Holden seems to be excluded from and victimized by the world around him. As he says to Mr. Spencer, he feels trapped on the other side of life, and he continually attempts to find his way in a world in which he feels he doesnt belong.As the novel progresses, we begin to perceive that Holdens alienation is his way of protecting himself. Just as he wears his hunting hat (see Symbols, below) to advertise his uniqueness, he uses his isolation as proof that he is better than everyone else around him and therefore above interacting with them. The truth is that interactions with other people usually confuse and overwhelm him, and his cynical sense of superiority serves as a type of self-protection. Thus, Holdens alienation is the source of what little stability he has in his life.As readers, we can see that Holdens alienation is the cause of most of his pain. He never addresses his own emotions directly, nor does he attempt to discover the source of his troubles. He desperately needs human contact and love, but his protective wall of bitterness prevents him from looking for such interaction. Alienation is both the source of Holdens strength and the source of his problems. For example, his loneliness propels him into his date with Sally Hayes, but his need for isolation causes him to insult her and drive her away. Similarly, he longs for the meaningful connection he once had with Jane Gallagher, but he is too frightened to make any real effort to contact her. He depends upon his alienation, but it destroys him.The Painfulness of Growing Up - According to most analyses, The Catcher in the Rye is a bildungsroman, a novel about a young characters growth into maturity. While it is appropriate to discuss the novel in such terms, Holden Caulfield is an unusual protagonist for a bildungsroman because his central goal is to resist the process of maturity itself. As his thoughts about the Museum of Natural History demonstrate, Holden fears change and is overwhelmed by complexity. He wants everything to be easily understandable and eternally fixed, like the statues of Eskimos and Indians in the museum. He is frightened because he is guilty of the sins he criticizes in others, and because he cant understand everything around him. But he refuses to acknowledge this fear, expressing it only in a few instancesfor example, when he talks about sex and admits that [s]ex is something I just dont understand. I swear to God I dont (Chapter ).Instead of acknowledging that adulthood scares and mystifies him, Holden invents a fantasy that adulthood is a world of superficiality and hypocrisy (phoniness), while childhood is a world of innocence, curiosity, and honesty. Nothing reveals his image of these two worlds better than his fantasy about the catcher in the rye he imagines childhood as an idyllic field of rye in which children romp and play; adulthood, for the children of this world, is equivalent to deatha fatal fall over the edge of a cliff. His created understandings of childhood and adulthood allow Holden to cut himself off from the world by covering himself with a protective armor of cynicism. But as the book progresses, Holdens experiences, particularly his encounters with Mr. Antolini and Phoebe, reveal the shallowness of his conceptions.The Phoniness of the Adult World - Phoniness, which is probably the most famous phrase from The Catcher in the Rye, is one of Holdens favorite concepts. It is his catch-all for describing the superficiality, hypocrisy, pretension, and shallowness that he encounters in the world around him. In Chapter , just before he reveals his fantasy of the catcher in the rye, Holden explains that adults are inevitably phonies, and, whats worse, they cant see their own phoniness. Phoniness, for Holden, stands as an emblem of everything thats wrong in the world around him and provides an excuse for him to withdraw into his cynical isolation.Though oversimplified, Holdens observations are not entirely inaccurate. He can be a highly insightful narrator, and he is very aware of superficial behavior in those around him. Throughout the novel he encounters many characters who do seem affected, pretentious, or superficialSally Hayes, Carl Luce, Maurice and Sunny, and even Mr. Spencer stand out as examples. Some characters, like Maurice and Sunny, are genuinely harmful. But although Holden expends so much energy searching for phoniness in others, he never directly observes his own phoniness. His deceptions are generally pointless and cruel and he notes that he is a compulsive liar. For example, on the train to New York, he perpetrates a mean-spirited and needless prank on Mrs. Morrow. Hed like us to believe that he is a paragon of virtue in a world of phoniness, but that simply isnt the case. Although hed like to believe that the world is a simple place, and that virtue and innocence rest on one side of the fence while superficiality and phoniness rest on the other, Holden is his own counterevidence. The world is not as simple as hed likeand needsit to be; even he cannot adhere to the same black-and-white standards with which he judges other people.Motifs Motifs are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help to develop and inform the texts major themes.Loneliness - Holdens loneliness, a more concrete manifestation of his alienation problem, is a driving force throughout the book. Most of the novel describes his almost manic quest for companionship as he flits from one meaningless encounter to another. Yet, while his behavior indicates his loneliness, Holden consistently shies away from introspection and thus doesnt really know why he keeps behaves as he does. Because Holden depends on his isolation to preserve his detachment from the world and to maintain a level of self-protection, he often sabotages his own attempts to end his loneliness. For example, his conversation with Carl Luce and his date with Sally Hayes are made unbearable by his rude behavior. His calls to Jane Gallagher are aborted for a similar reason to protect his precious and fragile sense of individuality. Loneliness is the emotional manifestation of the alienation Holden experiences; it is both a source of great pain and a source of his security.Relationships, Intimacy, and Sexuality - Relationships, intimacy, and sexuality are also recurring motifs relating to the larger theme of alienation. Both physical and emotional relationships offer Holden opportunity to break out of his isolated shell. They also represent what he fears most about the adult world complexity, unpredictability, and potential for conflict and change. As he demonstrates at the Museum of Natural History, Holden likes the world to be silent and frozen, predictable and unchanging. As he watches Phoebe sleep, Holden projects his own idealizations of childhood onto her. But in real-world relationships, people talk back, and Phoebe reveals how different her childhood is from Holdens romanticized notion. Because people are unpredictable, they challenge Holden and force him to question his senses of self-confidence and self-worth. For intricate and unspoken reasons, seemingly stemming from Allies death, Holden has trouble dealing with this kind of complexity. As a result, he has isolated himself and fears intimacy. Although he encounters opportunities for both physical and emotional intimacy, he bungles them all, wrapping himself in a psychological armor of critical cynicism and bitterness. Even so, Holden desperately continues searching for new relationships, always undoing himself only at the last moment.Lying and Deception - Lying and deception are the most obvious and hurtful elements of the larger category of phoniness. Holdens definition of phoniness relies mostly on a kind of self-deception he seems to reserve the most scorn for people who think that they are something they are not or who refuse to acknowledge their own weaknesses. But lying to others is also a kind of phoniness, a type of deception that indicates insensitivity, callousness, or even cruelty. Of course, Holden himself is guilty of both these crimes. His random and repeated lying highlights his own self-deceptionhe refuses to acknowledge his own shortcomings and is unwilling to consider how his behavior affects those around him. Through his lying and deception, Holden proves that he is just as guilty of phoniness as the people he criticizes.Symbols Symbols are objects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.The Catcher in the Rye - As the source of the books title, this symbol merits close inspection. It first appears in Chapter 16, when a kid Holden admires for walking in the street rather than on the sidewalk is singing the Robert Burns song Comin Thro the Rye. In Chapter , when Phoebe asks Holden what he wants to do with his life, he replies with his image, from the song, of a catcher in the rye. Holden imagines a field of rye perched high on cliff, full of children romping and playing. He says he would like to protect the children from falling off the edge of the cliff by catching them if they were on the verge of tumbling over. As Phoebe points out, Holden has misheard the lyric. He thinks the line is If a body catch a body comin through the rye, but the actual lyric is If a body meet a body, coming through the rye.The song Comin Thro the Rye asks if it is wrong for two people to have a romantic encounter out in the fields, away from the public eye, even if they dont plan to have a commitment to one another. It is highly ironic that the word meet refers to an encounter that leads to recreational sex, because the word that Holden substitutescatchtakes on the exact opposite meaning in his mind. Holden wants to catch children before they fall out of innocence into knowledge of the adult world, including knowledge of sex.Holdens Red Hunting Hat - The red hunting hat is one of the most recognizable symbols from twentieth-century American literature. It is inseparable from our image of Holden, with good reason it is a symbol of his uniqueness and individuality. The hat is outlandish, and it shows that Holden desires to be different from everyone around him. At the same time, he is very self-conscious about the hathe always mentions when he is wearing it, and he often doesnt wear it if he is going to be around people he knows. The presence of the hat, therefore, mirrors the central conflict in the book Holdens need for isolation versus his need for companionship.Even though the hat symbolizes Holdens isolation, like all hunting hats, it eventually symbolizes the more positive value of protection, specifically the protection of childhood innocence. Holden gives his hat to his beloved sister Phoebe before leaving her to go out west. She has just given him money to protect him on his journey and he offers her something that he feels connected to and that will protect her. In doing so, he divests the hat of its negative symbolism (that of being a crutch for him to rely upon) and emphasizes the positive protective qualities for which it was originally made.The Museum of Natural History - Holden explicitly tells us the symbolic meaning of the museums displays they appeal to him because they are frozen and unchanging. He also mentions that he is troubled by the fact that he has changed every time he returns to them. The museum represents the world Holden wishes he could live in its the world of his catcher in the rye fantasy, a world where nothing ever changes, where everything is simple, understandable, and infinite. Holden is terrified by the unpredictable challenges of the worldhe hates conflict, he is confused by Allies senseless death, and he fears interaction with other people.The Ducks in the Central Park Lagoon - Holdens curiosity about the where the ducks go during the winter reveals a genuine, more youthful side to his character. For most of the book, he sounds like a grumpy old man who is angry at the world, but his search for the ducks represents the curiosity of youth and a joyful willingness to encounter the mysteries of the world. It is memorable moment, because Holden clearly lacks such willingness in other aspects of his life.The ducks and their pond are symbolic in several ways. Their mysterious perseverance in the face of an inhospitable environment resonates with Holdens understanding of his own situation. In addition, the ducks prove that some vanishings are only temporary. Traumatized and made acutely aware of the fragility of life by his brother Allies death, Holden is terrified by the idea of change and disappearance. The ducks vanish every winter, but they return every spring, thus symbolizing change that isnt permanent, but cyclical. Finally, the pond itself becomes a minor metaphor for the world as Holden sees it, because it is partly frozen and partly not frozen. The pond is in transition between two states, just as Holden is in transition between childhood and adulthood. Key Facts Full title - The Catcher in the RyeAuthor - J. D. SalingerType of work - NovelGenre - Bildungsroman (coming-of-age novel)Language - EnglishTime and place written - Late 140searly 150s, New YorkDate of first publication - July 151; parts of the novel appeared as short stories in Colliers, December 145, and in the New Yorker, December 146Publisher - Little, Brown, and CompanyNarrator - Holden Caulfield, narrating from a psychiatric facility at an unspecified length of time from the events of the novelPoint of view - Holden Caulfield narrates in the first person, describing what he himself sees and experiences, providing his own commentary on the events and people he describes.Tone - Holdens tone varies between disgust, cynicism, bitterness, and nostalgic longing, all expressed in a colloquial style.Tense - PastSetting (time) - A long weekend in the late 140s or early 150sSetting (place) - Holden begins his story in Pennsylvania, at his former school, Pencey Prep. He then recounts his adventures in New York City.Protagonist - Holden CaulfieldMajor Conflict - The major conflict is within Holdens psyche. Part of him wants to connect with other people on an adult level (and, more specifically, to have a sexual encounter), while part of him wants to reject the adult world as phony, and to retreat into his own memories of childhood.Rising Action - Holdens many attempts to connect with other people over the course of the novel bring his conflicting impulsesto interact with other people as an adult, or to retreat from them as a childinto direct conflict.Climax - Possible climaxes include Holdens encounter with Sunny, when it becomes clear that he is unable to handle a sexual encounter; the end of his date with Sally, when he tries to get her to run away with him; and his departure from Mr. Antolinis apartment, when he begins to question his characteristic mode of judging other people.Falling action - Holdens interactions with Phoebe, culminating in his tears of joy at watching Phoebe on the carousel (at the novels end he has retreated into childhood, away from the threats of adult intimacy and sexuality)Themes - Alienation as a form of self-protection; the painfulness of growing up; the phoniness of the adult worldMotifs - Relationships, intimacy, and sexuality; loneliness; lying and deceptionSymbols - The catcher in the rye; Holdens red hunting hat; the Museum of Natural History; the ducks in the Central Park lagoonForeshadowing - At the beginning of the book, Holden hints that he has been hospitalized for a nervous breakdown, the story of which is revealed over the course of the novelThe Work of J.D. SalingerMany critics consider J.D. Salinger a very controversial writer, for thesubject matters that he writes.. J.D. Salingers works were generallywritten during two time periods. The first time period was during WorldWar II, and the second time period was during the 160s. Critics feelthat the works during the 160 time period were very inappropriate, becauseof the problems for which he wrote. The main characters were generallymisfits of society. In most of his works, he has the protagonist of thestory go on a quest for happiness. Salinger does not conform to thematerial happiness; the characters undergo a spiritual happiness. Thecharacters generally start out as in bad conditions, through the end of hisworks they undergone changes that change them for the better. The works ofJ.D. Salinger show the quest for happiness through religion, loneliness,and symbolism.Salingers works often use religion in order to portray comfort. InSalingers Nine Stories Franny Glass keeps reciting the Jesus Prayer tocope with the suicide of her brother Seymour (Bloom in Bryfonski andSenick 6). Salinger is able to use this prayer as a means of comfort forFranny. The prayer stands for the last hope for Franny in this situation.Franny would be lost if their was no prayer. (Bryfonski and Senick 71).Salinger shows us comfort in Catcher in the Rye. Holden Caufield, theprotagonist, is very much in despair for losing his girlfriend, so Caufieldreads a passage in the Bible. This helps Holden change his outlook on life(Salzberg 75). Holden was all alone at this point and had no one to turnback on, until he found the Bible (Salzberg 76). In both stories thecharacters had found themselves in bad situations. The characters in theseworks have obstacles which they must overcome in order to achieve happiness(Salzman 4). Happiness is the very substance which all of thesecharacters are striving for in Salingers works. Salinger uses religion inhis works to comfort them so that they can proceed on their quest toachieve happiness.Salinger uses religion as a means for liberation. Salinger uses much ofthe Zen philosophy, as in the case of Nine Stories, to achieve thisliberation (Madsen ). In Nine Stories one of the characters, SeymourGlass, is portrayed as Buddha in the sense that he wants to be liberated asBuddha was in his life (Madsen ). Seymour Glass in Nine Stories has acertain philosophy about life, it is similar to the Eightfold Path used byBuddha when achieving nirvana (French in Matuz 1). Seymour Glass is on aquest to become free from all of the suffering in his life as Buddha wasfrom his life (French in Matuz 1). Seymour follows the Eightfold pathto become liberated from suffering (Madsen 6). Seymour achieves nirvanaby living a good life and end anything that causes suffering. Seymour isable to attain nirvana by committing suicide (Lundquist in Matuz 11).Salinger shows us that when Seymour committed suicide he let go of all ofthe suffering that he encountered, thus attaining the happiness he longedfor (French, Salinger Revisited 1). Salinger shows liberation as an endto all suffering, thus creating happiness for the character. (French,Salinger Revisited 1).The final function of religion as a means to attain happiness was to gainpeace In The Young Lion, Salinger uses religion to gain peace through afictitious war. In the story many of the soldiers were dying and thecountries were in turmoil (Lundquist 1). The leaders in the story see avision on the battlefield that changes them, and stops the war (Lundquist15). Salinger shows how religion can be a force used to create happinessin a story, by creating peace (Lundquist 1). Salinger is able to usereligion as a means of attaining happiness through peace. The story seemedvery dismal, until religion intervened and stopped the conflict. Salingercreates happiness for the characters by stopping the conflict. In TheStranger Salinger creates peace through a war by using more of the Zenphilosophy. Salingers creates a Pact of Peace which stops the conflictbetween the Germans and Polish during WWII (Hamilton in Bryfonski andSenick 14) . The Pact of Peace was a teaching used by Buddhain the Zenphilosophy (Hamilton in Bryfonski and Senick 14). Salinger uses Zen, inthis case, to stop the conflict between the Polish and Germans(Hamilton inBryfonski and Senick 14). In many of Salingers works the conflict,becomes a source for much of the unhappiness in the story (Wenke 1).Salinger uses religion as a medium to create tranquility, consequently thecharacters to achieve happiness (Wenke 15).In many of Salingers works loneliness is used to isolate characters fromevil. Salinger portrays all of society to be bad, and for many charactersisolation from society is the only way to achieve happiness (Grunwald 10).In Salingers Catcher in the Rye Holden Caufields entire plot deals withhim trying to isolate from society. Holden realizes that society hasbecome bad, and wants no part in this terrible life (French, SalingerRevisited 1). Salinger uses society as the source of discord in thiscase to be isolated from. Holden is shown as a hermit at the end of Catcherin the Rye (Grunwald 68). Grunwald explains Holdens tranquillity, at theend, can be ascribed to his isolation from society (68). Holden onlywants to be separated from the society which considers him a misfit. InSalingers works a source of unhappiness is usually the fact that societyfeels the characters are misfits. The characters can only become happy ifthey isolate themselves from this society.Salinger uses loneliness also as a means to change in life. In Raise theRoof Beam High, Salinger is able to use isolation to change the life ofSeymour Glass (Salzman 10). Seymour feels that society has become corruptand must change his lifestyle in order for him to become happy (Salzman14). Seymour sees that society has no more compassion on people, and thathe must do something to change it (Salzman 16). In order for him tochange society he must first isolate from society (Salzman 140). Salingeruses loneliness again to benefit mankind. Salinger in this case makes aperson change his lifestyle to isolate from society (Salzman 1). Thebenefits of this action are good not only for the person who has changed,but also help parts of society which are affected (Salzman 1).Loneliness in Salingers works benefits the characters greatly. Salingeris able to isolate the characters in his works in order for them to attainhappiness (Grunwald 65). Salinger describes Seymour as A recluse,whowill never be part of society (Grunwald 60). He shows that Seymour wantsnothing of this world and wants to be as far away as possible. Thecharacters see that society has become bad, and in order for them to becomehappy they must get away from society, and live their own lives.Salinger uses many lucky symbols in his works to show to fulfill the questfor happiness. In Soft-Broiled Sergeant one of the soldiers wears a pairof lucky underwear, which saves him in battle and helps in finding the loveof his life (French, J.D. Salinger 4). The underwear gives the soldierthe happiness he is looking for (French, J.D. Salinger 45). Salinger manytimes uses funny lucky symbols like this, but can be found to providehappiness for the characters (Salzberg 11). Another example of luckysymbols is in For Esme Salinger portrays the sun as a lucky symbol toJoseph Carney (French, J.D. Salinger 6). The sun is lucky to Joseph inthat it helps Joseph turn his entire life around, from the rut it had beeninto a life of great prosperity (French, J.D. Salinger 66). The sunprovides inspiration for Joseph to change his life (French, J.D. Salinger66). The characters in J.D. Salingers works start out in bad situations.Through the use of lucky symbols their life is changed to what will makethem happy.Salinger uses symbolism in his works also to foreshadow a better life. InLong Debut of Louis Taggett the symbol of a cigarette being put outforeshadows the end of a marriage (Galloway in Curley and Kramer 58). Theend of this marriage for Louis Taggett, means good for his life (Gallowayin Curley and Kramer 61). Louis at the end of the story is able toconcentrate more on his job, where he meets the woman that will really lovehim, and find wealth and prosperity (Galloway in Curley and Kramer 5).This symbolism to foreshadow is one of many examples of how Salinger usessymbolism to predict a better life (Galloway in Curley and Kramer 61).Salinger many times use subtle, but important symbols to foreshadow betterthings (Galloway in Curley and Kramer 6). The character, in this work,has suffered through hardships. The characters life is in a total mess atthe time. Salinger also shows foreshadowing to a better life through TheLast Day of the Last Furlough (Matuz 157). In the story John Hendren isable Salinger uses symbolism for the character to fulfill his quest forhappiness(Matuz 148)John Hendren who is in World War II, has always worelarge wooden necklace given to him by his mother (Matuz 148). This samenecklace stops a bullet, which could have killed him(Matuz 14). John islater awarded a medal of respect for his valiant effort, giving him lots offame(Matuz 14). Salinger shows how such symbols provide happiness to thelives of people (Wenke 7).Salinger uses allusion from other works to show how happiness will befulfilled. In Salingers Catcher in the Rye, Salinger refers greatly inone chapter to ducks in central park. The ducks are in context to ascripture in the Bible, which tells of how the ducks are free (Galloway inBloom 5). Salinger later explains that Holden will become free as theseducks (Galloway in Bloom 54). In Catcher in the Rye Holdens main purposewas to be free from the suffering (Galloway in Bloom 58). The ducksrepresented how he would feel, being happy (Galloway in Bloom 56).Salinger also shows his symbolism from other works through the work of MarkTwain. Salinger portrays how Holden in Catcher in the Rye changes to adifferent man when he is at the water fountain in Central Park, as the casein Mark Twains Huckleberry Finn in which Huck changes when he is on theMississippi River (Grunwald in Bloom 64). Salinger uses symbolism fromother books in his books to convey how the characters in his works willchangefor a better life (Grunwald in Bloom 67). Salinger uses much of thesymbolism to show how the life of the characters has become happy.Salinger uses symbols to show the turning point of the characters lives.He shows that these symbols will change their lives for the better.The works of Salinger show the quest for happiness through religion,loneliness, and symbolism. Salingers writings deal with charactersfulfilling their quest for happiness. He would have the charactersaccomplish their quest by going through obstacles, in which they learnedabout their lives. He employed the religion, loneliness, and symbolism asmeans for the characters to understand how to obtain happiness in life.The writings of the Salinger, become very important for this time period,because he goes against the grain of society to show how it is wrong. Thewritings of Salinger, while they may have been excellent in style, havebecome very controversial for what he has portrayed in the society duringthis time period

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